</title= ><style type=3D"text/css">@page Section1 { size:612pt 792pt; margin:72pt }@= font-face { font-family:'CBKPLB+Calibri'; src:url('times.ttf') }@font-face = { font-family:'CBKPLB+Calibri'; font-weight:bold; src:url('timesbd.ttf') }@= font-face { font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'; src:url('times.ttf') }@fo= nt-face { font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'; font-weight:bold; src:url('= timesbd.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'DMSBOM+Garamond Bold'; src:url('ti= mes.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'DMSBOM+Garamond Bold'; font-weight:bol= d; src:url('timesbd.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; src:= url('times.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-weight:b= old; src:url('timesbd.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold= '; src:url('times.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold'; f= ont-weight:bold; src:url('timesbd.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'KLLBID+G= aramond'; src:url('times.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond';= font-weight:bold; src:url('timesbd.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'Times = New Roman'; src:url('times.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'Times New Roman= '; font-weight:bold; src:url('timesbd.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'UKTM= OM+Garamond Italic'; src:url('times.ttf') }@font-face { font-family:'UKTMOM= +Garamond Italic'; font-weight:bold; src:url('timesbd.ttf') }div.Section1 {= page:Section1 }body { font-family:'Times New Roman'; font-size:12pt }h1, h= 2, h3, h4, h5, h6, p { margin:0pt }h1 { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:0pt;= page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-family:'Times New Ro= man'; font-size:24pt; font-weight:bold; font-style:normal; color:#2f5496 }h= 2 { margin-top:2pt; margin-bottom:0pt; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-= after:avoid; font-family:'Times New Roman'; font-size:18pt; font-weight:bol= d; font-style:normal; color:#2f5496 }h3 { margin-top:2pt; margin-bottom:0pt= ; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-family:'Times New R= oman'; font-size:14pt; font-weight:bold; font-style:normal; color:#1f3763 }= h4 { margin-top:2pt; margin-bottom:0pt; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break= -after:avoid; font-family:'Times New Roman'; font-size:12pt; font-weight:bo= ld; font-style:normal; color:#2f5496 }h5 { margin-top:2pt; margin-bottom:0p= t; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-family:'Times New = Roman'; font-size:10pt; font-weight:bold; font-style:normal; color:#2f5496 = }h6 { margin-top:2pt; margin-bottom:0pt; page-break-inside:avoid; page-brea= k-after:avoid; font-family:'Times New Roman'; font-size:8pt; font-weight:bo= ld; font-style:normal; color:#1f3763 }.stl01 { font-size:12pt }.stl02 { bor= der:1pt solid #000000; font-size:12pt }.stl03 { font-size:12pt }.stl05 { fo= nt-size:12pt }span.Heading1Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; font-size:16= pt; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading2Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; font-si= ze:13pt; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading3Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; fo= nt-size:12pt; color:#1f3763 }span.Heading4Char { font-family:'Calibri Light= '; font-style:italic; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading5Char { font-family:'Calib= ri Light'; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading6Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; = color:#1f3763 }span.stl07 { font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:12pt; = color:#000000 }span.stl10 { letter-spacing:0pt }span.stl15 { letter-spacing= :0pt }span.stl47 { font-family:'CBKPLB+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; color:#000= 000 }span.stl96 { font-family:'Times New Roman'; font-size:10pt; color:#000= 000 }span.stlsup { vertical-align:baseline }</style></head><body><div class= =3D"Section1"><div style=3D"border:1pt solid #000000; clear:both"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw= 0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOx= AAADsQBD6fLggAACCxJREFUeJzt1s1pAmEYhdE7OFkEIa5cTy3WkB5swgYswyqycS9TRxoQJOBi= 8KeFLJSXT8+p4FldbgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAG3oqgOAYuv94uMy+86t+6pO4YGuGafdaqzOAJ6jrw4Aih2Pf9N8+ZPJHryW86m6AAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABeTVcd0IjPJEOSvjqE5p2S/FZHANA= 2h+R/hiTbJIvqEJp3SLKpjgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAeGd3vlcTjYstPQYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"62= 4" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN = 1607-4319) = Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 &#= xa0;pp. 16 - 32 Interpreting t= he Justiciability of GATT=E2=80=99s Article XXI: </spa= n>Security Except= ions=EA=A2=80 =EA=A2=81= Ana Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez </spa= n>*= Autor para Correspondencia. E-mail<a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gma= il.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank= " style=3D"text-decoration:none">anacarolina@illueca.com <= /span></a>Recibido: 14 de junio de 2021 </s= pan>Aceptado: 15 de julio de 2021 </= p>___________________= _________________________________ Resumen: El presente trabajo anali= za la justiciabilidad del art=C3=ADculo XXI del Acuerdo General sobre Aranc= eles Aduaneros y Comercio. Para ello= , se analiza: (i) el contenido del art=C3=ADculo XXI; (ii) su car=C3=A1cter= auto- justiciable; (iii) los trabaj= os preparatorios que conducen a su redacci=C3=B3n; (iv) las discusiones lle= vadas a cabo en el Acuerdo General s= obre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio/Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial del <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> Comercio; (v) las consideraciones de la Corte= Internacional de Justicia; (vi) las posturas acad=C3=A9micas; <span= class=3D"stl07"> (vii) el est=C3=A1ndar de revisi=C3=B3n; (viii) = la pr=C3=A1ctica de los Estados; (ix) las estrategias para prevenir el abus= o del Derecho; y (x) consideraciones= finales. Palabras clave: General Agreement on Tariffs an= d Trade, World Trade Organization, Article XXI, security <= span class=3D"stl07">exceptions, self-judging. Abstract: <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold'"> </sp= an>= This paper analyzes the justiciability of Article XXI of the General Agreem= ent on Trade and Tariffs. To this en= d, it delves into: (i) the content of Article XXI; (ii) its self-judging ch= aracter; (iii) the preparatory wor= ks that led to its factual wording; (iv) the discussions conducted before t= he General Agreement on Trade and Ta= riffs and the World Trade Organization system; (v) the International </span= > =EA=A2=80Ensayo presentado como parte del curso =E2=80=9C= International Trade Law=E2=80= =9D en la Maestr=C3=ADa en Derecho de la Universidad de <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > Nueva Yo= rk. =EA=A2=81Licen= ciada en Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La= Antigua, Summa Cum Laude<sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= ); Certificado en Cooperaci=C3=B3n y Soluci=C3=B3n de Conflictos (Teacher= =E2=80=99s College, Columbia University); Maestr=C3=ADa en Derecho (New Yor= k = University). Mediadora id=C3=B3nea en la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1, = y consultora y obeservadora electoral a nivel local e </spa= n>internacional. Miemb= ro de la Junta Directiva Global de Generaci=C3=B3n Democracia del Instituto= Republicano Internacional. 16 = <img src=3D"data:imag= e/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfA= hkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jr= YIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB84pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAD81wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" al= t=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Court of = Justice considerations; (vi) scholarly writings; (vii) the standard of revi= ew; (viii) the state practice; (ix) = the strategies for preventing legal abuses; and (x) it offers some final co= nsiderations. Keywords: Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles= Aduaneros y Comercio, Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial del Comercio, <span= class=3D"stl07"> art=C3=ADculo XXI, excepciones relativas a la se= guridad, auto-justiciable. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">I. <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold'">Introductio= n The General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT)1 </sp= an>embodies exceptions to the obligations and = principles of the agreement. Specifically, = Article XXI deals with security exceptions and reads as <= span class=3D"stl07">follows: </p= >=E2=80=9CNothing in this Agreement shall= be construed <spa= n class=3D"stl07">(a) to require any contracting party to furnish any infor= mation the disclosure of which </= p>it co= nsiders contrary to its essential security interests; or <= span class=3D"stl07">(b) to prevent any contracting party from taking any a= ction which it considers necessary f= or the protection of its essential security interests <spa= n class=3D"stl07">(i) relating to fissionable materials or the materials fr= om which they are derived; <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">(ii) rela= ting to the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and to such <= /span> traffic in other goods and materials = as is carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose <= span class=3D"stl07">of supplying a military establishment; (iii) taken in time of war or other emergency in in= ternational relations; or (c) to pre= vent any contracting party from taking any action in pursuance of its </spa= n> obligations under the United Nations Char= ter for the maintenance of international = ;peace and security.=E2=80=9D</= span>2 This provision is treated separately from the g= eneral exceptions contained in Article XX of the same <spa= n class=3D"stl07">instrument with an evident differentiation purpose. Artic= le XXI deals with security exceptions, <= /span>perhaps the most subjective and sensitive issue nations have jurisdictio= n over. This article has been </p= >subjec= t of debate, particularly over its self-judging character and justiciabilit= y. Among the legal questions raise= d is whether Article XXI exceptions are subject to the GATT dispute settlem= ent mechanism, enshrined in Article= XXIII. Those who claim its justiciability elaborate on the standard </span= > of review that a panel should apply when d= etermining violations of GATT obligations. The jurisprudence of the GATT/WTO does not provide a definitive answ= er to these questions3. Since the </s= pan> establishment of the GATT, members have= brought few complaints regarding measures justified <span= class=3D"stl07">under Article XXI but no binding report has been adopted. = Under the original GATT dispute <= /p>1 GENERAL = AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT), Geneva (October 30, 1947). <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 2 </spa= n>GATT, art. XXI. 3 LINDSAY, Peter (2003): =E2=80=9CThe Ambi= guity of GATT Article XXI: Subtle Success or Rampant Failure=E2=80=9D</span= >, Duke Law Journal, Vol. 52, pp. 1278-1279. </spa= n> 17 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhE= UgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggA= ACMRJREFUeJzt3TFqVWEUhdF9HiFNmhCEdJmAc0nhFKwsMxetHUgK7VNobWUrlipIQjyZwAOfCP= nveazV/s0uP7hcTgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMUqsHDPEyydsk56uHMN7HJDerRwAAA= AAAAAAAAAAArOAnhv/U3RdJrlbvAIAj8Zjka1X9WD1ky05WDzgC10nerx4BAMegu39W1askt6u3= bNlu9QAAAP6NgAMAGEbAAQAMI+AAAIYRcAAAwwg4AIBhBBwAwDACDgBgGAEHADCMSwwH6O5Kcpr= 9p8d23X3/zJOAgaqqk3R3r54CW/Y7yZ/VI7ZOwB3mKsmbJGf73rr7+zPvAQbq7sckH5Lcrd4CG/= ZQVV9Wj9g6AXeYyySvk7zY97jb+RIN/F1331fVp6p6t3oLMJvyAAAYRsABAAwj4AAAhhFwAADDC= DgAgGEEHADAMAIOAGAYAQcAMIyAAwAYxiWGw/zq7s9JzlcPAUZ7SPJt9QgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgmSdX8TS= 6U5jkwAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />settlement system, </= span>the pane= ls=E2=80=99 jurisdiction was curtailed by a requirement of consensus among = member States in order to issue a binding report. With the establishmen= t of the World Trade Organization </span= >(W= TO) and the adoption of the Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), a new dispute settlement mechanism gave panels more independence and much less power to = members to block the reports. </p= >Only o= n one occasion has an Article XXI complaint been brought under the new syst= em, and it was settled before a pane= l could issue a decision. The lack o= f a definitive GATT/WTO panel interpretation on the justiciability of measu= res invoked under the security excep= tions has left a loophole to be filled by alternative interpretations. The = purpose of this paper is to provide = guidance on the question of justiciability of Article XXI, security excepti= ons. The paper analyzes the preparat= ory works of Article XXI, along with its subsequent interpretation by </spa= n> member States in GATT/WTO forums. Additio= nally, considerations by the International Court of Justice will be provided. Academic opinions and relevant St= ate practice regarding Article XXI will = complement the discussion. </= p>II. <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold'; letter-sp= acing:0.05pt"> Articl= e XXI: A Self-Judging Clause According to Stephan Schill and Robyn= Briese, self-judging clauses are =E2=80=9Cprovisions in internationa<span= class=3D"stl07">l legal instrumen= ts by means of which States retain the right to escape or derogate from an = international obligation based on un= ilateral considerations and based on their subjective appreciation of wheth= er the circumstances required for = the invocation of the clause exist=E2=80=9D4. For Schill and Briese, self-judging <= /span>clauses possess two identifiable characteristics: they provide a unilate= ral opt-out from an international </span= >ob= ligation and they give the invoking State the discretion of determining whe= ther the elements for the opt-out ha= ve been fulfilled5. Schill and Briese= follow the rules of interpretation of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), specifically Articl= e 31(1), when asserting that self-judging = 0;clauses should clearly state that a Contracting Party will retain the= discretion to decide the scope and </sp= an>applicability of the provision (for= example, by using the words =E2=80=9Cif the State considers=E2=80=9D)</spa= n>6. </sp= an>= The language of Article XXI favors the conclusion that it is a self-judging= provision. Since it is an <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">exception= , its invocation provides an opt-out of GATT obligations. In addition, it u= ses the word =E2=80=9Cnothing= =E2=80=9D, and the wording of its sub-<= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">paragraphs (a)= and (b) provide for the article=E2=80=99s invocation when a contractin= g party considers it necessary7. The = content of this provision neither signals the existence <= span class=3D"stl07">of an objective standard of review nor explicitly prov= ides jurisdiction to the GATT/WTO for </= span>determining the righteousness of = the measure. In contrast, Article XX=E2=80=99s chapeau, which enshrines an = = objective standard of review, does provide the WTO with jurisdiction to= examine various aspects of <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">an invoc= ation under such exceptions, such as the necessity of the measure<sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">8= . </= p>4SCHILL, Stephan & BRIESE, Roby= n (2009): =E2=80=9CIf the State Considers: Self-Judging Clauses i= n International Dispute Settlement=E2=80=9D, Max Planck Y= earbook of United Nations Law, Vol. 13, p. 92. </= span>5 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 68. 6 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 69-70. <= /p>7 ALFORD, = Roger P. (2001): =E2=80=9CThe Self-Judging WTO Security Exception=E2=80=9D, U= TAH Law Review, No. 3, p. 759. 8 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1= 282. 18 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGg= oAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAAD= sQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUx= HQHA2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808"= alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />The se= lf-judging character of Article XXI remains subject of academic and legal d= ebate. This paper will offer contras= ting positions and arguments regarding the justiciability of the provision = and the question of its self-judging= character. III. Preparatory Works Preparatory works, = as supplementary means of interpretation9, are relevant when dealing with the = 0;ambiguity surrounding the justiciability and self-judging character o= f Article XXI, and the implausibilit= y of resolving the question through the ordinary meaning of the clause. In = general, preparatory works provide u= seful insight in cases of ambiguity or obscurity of legal provisions. </spa= n> Ultimately, the analysis of the preparato= ry works of Article XXI will afford a reasonable interpretation <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> of the = article=E2=80=99s object and purpose as conceived by the GATT=E2=80=99s Con= tracting Parties. = As evidenced = by the first drafts of the GATT, the United States=E2=80=99 State Departmen= t Proposal10 and the London Draft11= , States recognized the need to establish exceptions to the obligations and= general principles that were going = to be agreed upon in the new trade organization. The GATT 1947 eventually <= /span> separated general exceptions (Article XX) from security exceptions (Arti= cle XXI); however it wasn=E2=80=99t originally conceived that way. In t= he New York Draft of Charter12, these= exceptions were all included </p= >under =E2=80=9Cgeneral exceptions=E2=80= =9D, as follows: <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">=E2=80=9CArtic= le 37 = General exception= s to chapter V Subject to the requirement that such measures are= not applied in a manner which </= p>would= constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between co= untries where the same conditions pr= evail, or a disguised restriction on international trade, = nothing in Chapter V shall be construed to prevent th= e adoption or enforcement by = any Mem= ber of measures: (a) Necessary to protect public morals; (b) <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">For the = purpose of protecting human, animal or plant life or health, if <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> corresponding domestic safeguards under similar= conditions exist in the importing </spa= n>c= ountry; (c) Relating to fissionable materials; (d) Relating to the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and= to such traffic in other goods and = materials as is carried on for the purpose of supplying a = military establishment; = 9 </spa= n>VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969)= , Art. 32. 10 UNITED S= TATES OF AMERICA, DEPARTMENT OF STATE: =E2=80=9CProposals for Expansion o</= span>f World Trade and Employment=E2=80=9D (November 1945). <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;11 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: = =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of </= span>the First Session= of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/33 (December 1946). <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 12 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL:= =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > the Draf= ting Committee of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/34 (March 1947= ). 19 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoA= AAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQ= BD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEoO9lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAACYck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgCUOyWgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUV= ORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolu= te" />(e) <= /span>In time of war or other emergency in international relations, relating t= o the protection of the essential se= curity interests of a Member; </p= >(f) Relating to the importation or exportation of = gold or silver; (g) Necessary to secure compliance with laws or regulati= ons which are not inconsistent with = the provisions of Chapter V, such as, those relating to customs <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> enforcement, deceptive practices, and the prote= ction of patents, trade marks and </span= >co= pyrights; (h) <span= class=3D"stl07">Relating to the products of prison labour; (=E2=80=A6)= = ;(k) Undertaken in pursuance of obligations under the United Nations Ch= arter for the maintenance or restora= tion of international peace and security.=E2=80=9D13 </s= pan>If the article had remained as originally presented, any measure otherwise= prohibited and justified under sub-= paragraphs (c), (d), (e), and (k) would also need to comply with the condit= ions imposed by the article=E2=80=99s chap= eau. In other words, measures justified under security exceptions could not= have been applied in a manner that = would constitute arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countrie= s where the same conditions prevail,= or in a manner which constituted a disguised restriction on international trade14. The only difference between the chapeau of Article 37, and the= current text of Article XX of the G= ATT is insignificant. The United Sta= tes delegation proposed an amendment to the New York Draft Charter, which <= /span> suggested the exclusion of items (c),= (d), (e), (j) and (k) from Article 37, stating that this article related <= /span> only to Chapter V, and their inclusion in a new article to be placed =E2= =80=9Ctoward the end of the Charter (=E2=80=A6) [making] these items general exceptions to the entire char= ter=E2=80=9D15. </sp= an> When submitting the proposal for the con= sideration of the commission discussing the general exceptions, the Chairman himself stated that the proposal i= ntended to make those sub-paragraphs </s= pan>apply to the Charter as a whole and not only to Chapter V16</span= >. During the discussion of these security <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> exceptions, the Netherlands delegate asked for= clarification as to what meaning would be given to the <= span class=3D"stl07">phrases emergency in international relations <= span class=3D"stl07">and essential security interests, feeling they could create a large &#= xa0;loophole17. The United States=E2=80=99 (US) delegate attempted t= o address the previous concerns, feeling an obligation to do so as they= had originally drafted the text of those provisions. He argued that the ri= ght or need of a Member to determin= e what their security interests are and to take action accordingly <= span class=3D"stl07"> should be unquestionable. In explaining what= would constitute an emergency in international relations, the US delegate gave as an example the restrictions = to imports and exports by his government during World War II. More significantly, he explained that during the = drafting efforts the US recognized a </s= pan>13 =C3=8Ddem. </sp= an>14 PAUWELYN, Joost H.B. et al. (2016): Internation= al Trade Law (Wolters Kluwer, 3rd ed.), p. 419. <= /span>15 UNITED STAT= ES OF AMERICA, UNITED STATES DELEGATION TO THE UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CProposal submitted to the = Second Session of the Preparatory Committee of <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">the U.N. Conference on Trad= e and Employment=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/W/23 (May 1974), p. 5 (=E2=80=9C<s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'UKTMOM+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">US Proposal=E2=80=9D). 16 </spa= n>UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSecond= Session of the Preparatory Committee of the U.N. Conference on Trade and = Employment, 25th mtg. of Comm=E2=80=99n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/25 (July 1947), p. 3= 9. 17 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCI= AL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSecond Session of the Preparatory Committee of = the U.= N. Conference on Trade and Employment, 33rd mtg. of Comm=E2=80=99= n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/33 (July 1947), p. 19 (=E2=80=9CVerbat= ium of 33rd Meeting=E2=80=9D). 20 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:5"><img src= =3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAAB= HNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjERAgEQALFlBopX= gCzEYoUaB99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntXz+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfYAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>need for= balance. The exceptions could not be too tight as to prohibit measures =E2= =80=9Cneeded purely for securit= y reasons=E2=80=9D nor too broad as to permit the pretext of security to al= low =E2=80=9Canything under the sun=E2=80=9D18. <= span class=3D"stl07">Continuing the discussion of the US proposal, the comm= ission then proceeded to consider the </= span>introductory paragraph for the new article. The introductory text for the= new article disposed: =E2=80=9CNothing in this Charter shall be constr= ued to require any Member=E2=80=A6=E2=80=9D19. The Chairman opened the </span= >fl= oor for discussion on the issue of the possibility of reviewing measures in= voked under these exceptions. Specia= l weight is given to the remarks by the delegation who introduced the amend= ment. The US delegate stated that a = Member who invokes such exceptions would not violate the Charter, <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> but i= f that unilateral action affected another Member =E2=80=9Cthat member would= have the right to seek redress= of some kind under Article 35=E2=80=9D20. Article 35 of the New York Draft referred to dispute settlement within the organization. The Australian= representative suggested the inclusion of either a paragraph or a note that would further clarify that the sec= urity exceptions did not conflict with Article 3521. After receiving assuranc= es by the US delegation that the lack of conflict was =E2=80=9Cperfectly cl= ear=E2=80=9D22, <spa= n class=3D"stl07">the Australian representative withdrew his reservation. S= ubsequently, the proposal was approved. The &#= xa0;content of Article XXI as we know it today was settled in the Genev= a Final Act of October 30, 1947 <= /p>and = it has never been amended23. Needless= to say, the current language of the article is almost identical <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> to the= US=E2=80=99 proposal. After examining the discussions leading up to th= e adoption of this article, it is possible to assert the <= span class=3D"stl07">following conclusions. The decision to relocate the se= curity exceptions from the general provision to a separate article gives us strong indications that the Contrac= ting Parties wished these exceptions to = be granted a special treatment. The parties also recognized their indiv= idual right to determine what </p= >consti= tutes a security interest while at the same time asserting that the article= would be justiciable. IV. Article XXI Di= scussions in the GATT/WTO System Very few cases have been subjec= t to a formal dispute settlement procedure under Article XXI exceptions. Even though GATT/WTO panels have not b= een able to issue binding jurisprudence, it is relevant to reproduce some of the discussions that took place ar= ound those formal complaints. </p= >Additi= onally, further recollection of the opinions of member States at council me= etings regarding the scope of the ar= ticle will provide important insight. </= span>During the Third Session of the GATT, Czechoslovakia requested a decision= under Article XXIII regarding wheth= er the US had failed to meet its GATT obligations by issuing export license= s24. The US=E2=80=99 defense was = based on Article XXI, arguing the export licenses were being issued to prod= ucts they 18 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 20-22. </= span>19 US Proposal (1974). = 20 Verbatium of 33rd Meeting (1947), = p. 26-27. 21 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 27-28. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">22 =C3=8Ddem. = 23 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, SECRETARIAT (2012): =E2=80=9CGATT A= nalytical Index =E2=80=93 Guide to GATT Law and <= /span>Practice=E2=80= =9D (=E2=80=9CAnalytical Index=E2=80=9D). 24 </sp= an>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REQUEST FOR A DECISION UNDER = ART. XXIII BY CZECHOSLOVAKIA: =E2=80=9CUnited States <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D, <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= GATT/CP.3/33 (May 1949). 21 </s= pan><img src=3D"data:image/p= ng;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhki= AAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACcRJREFUeJzt3bGKXGUYxvHnmznGVSsxkCADVumsFUvv= wMobUHMN3oid3oFtihQpvAdBBZvIgmAlkmSTzc5509qsTGTJN+/w+9Vf8ZR/zineBAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAjsSYPaCJW0nuJNnM= HkJ7F0n+mj0CgN6W2QOauJvkfpL3Zg+hvZ+T/DB7BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAHQ1Zg84BVU1knyY5J3ZWwCguTXJn2OMi9lDjtkye8ApOD8/P9vtdt8l+XT2FgD= orKqe7vf7r5L8NHvLMRNwN2C326WqPhhj3J29BQCae7Isy63ZI47dZvYAAABej4ADAGhGwAEANC= PgAACaEXAAAM0IOACAZgQcAEAzAg4AoBkBBwDQjEsMB6iqO0m+SHJ2zZMlSa3r+vubWwXAKamqR= +5/JkleXF5e/jF7xLFzzP4AVfVJkgdJbs/eAsDJ+miMIVw4iF+oAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZ= AQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNOKV1mGdV9UuS92cPAeA0jTEuZ28AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAOBfxuwBp6KqliTL7B0A0FwleTnGWGcPOWaC4wZU1TbJl0k+m70FAJp7keT7J= L/OHnLMBNzN2Cb5PMnXs4cAQGdV9WSM8TAC7j9tZg8AAOD1CDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyA= AwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwgKp6N8m9JG9d82S7rus+yW9vbhVAf2OMl0mez97BUXmW5J/= ZI46dgDvMx0keJLl93YPNxsdMgP/hxyTfjDH+nj0EOlEdAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0I= yAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwmH1VPU1yNnsIwCkZYzxPUrN3QDcC7jCP13X9drvdvj17C= MApubq6erwsy8XsHQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABwA14BILZoqU31= spUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"posi= tion:absolute" />considered could potentially = be used by a military establishment25= . When the issue was discussed with </sp= an>the members, the Czech delegate pro= tested that because the US=E2=80=99 interpretation of =E2=80=9Cwar material= s=E2=80=9D was <sp= an class=3D"stl07">so broad there was no way to know what the term actually= covered26. The British delegate argu= ed that each State =E2=80=9Cmust have the last resort on questions rela= ting to its own security=E2=80=9D and, as such, the Czechoslovakian com= plaint should be dismissed27. The mem= bers voted on the complaint and the </sp= an>= majority found that the US had not failed to carry out its GATT obligations= . I= n 1961= Ghana considered the Portuguese=E2=80=99 presence in Angola as a threat to= African peace, and justified the establishment of a boycott on Portugu= ese goods under Article XXI (b) (iii). Specifically, <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">Ghana=E2=80=99s in= terpretation of the article entailed that each country was to be the =E2=80= =9Csole judge=E2=80=9D of what was necessary for its security interests= , and added that the threat which prompted those measures could <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> be either perceived or apparent28</spa= n>. In this instance, the issue of GATT jurisdiction = over Article XXI claims was not rais= ed29. &#= xa0;Sweden, in 1976, placed a global import quota for certain footwear<= /span>30 justified under Article XXI. At </s= pan> the time, Sweden was facing a decrease = in domestic production and determined that the maintenance of a minimum domestic production capacity <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">in the footwear = industry was =E2=80=9Cindispensable in order to secure the provision of= essential products necessary to meet basic needs in case of war or other <= /span> emergency in international relations=E2=80=9D31. Even though Sweden offered to consult bilaterally with </spa= n> affected members, and despite the quota w= as in place for only two years, this situation exemplifies the <span= class=3D"stl07"> complexi= ties of national security exceptions. As Raj Bhala has accurately stated, = =E2=80=9C[t]here are cases in which commercial and national security in= terests are so intertwined that a bright line between the two interests= can=E2=80=99t be drawn=E2=80=9D32. T= his is just one example of how almost anything can be justified, rightfully= or wrongfully, as essential for nat= ional security. The European Communi= ties (EC), Canada, and Australia applied a total ban on imports from </span= > Argentina after the 1982 Falklands/Malvina= s conflict. They justified the measure under Article XXI <= span class=3D"stl07">and said the exercise of rights under this exception w= as not subject to notification, justification, or approval33 by other mem= bers. Argentina argued that a failure to notify trade restrictions was not = only a violation of fundamental GATT= obligations but also a lack of respect for all Contracting Parties<= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >34. </span= >Th= e Brazilian delegate sided with Argentina and stated that while every membe= r has the right to 25 </span= >GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REPLY BY THE UNITED STATES DELE= GATION: =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D= , GATT/CP.3/38 (June 1949). </= span>26 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRAD= E, THIRD SESSION OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of th= e Twenty-Second Meeting=E2=80=9D, GATT/CP. 3/SR.22 (Jun= e 1949). 27 =C3=8Ddem, p. 7. <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 28 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, NINET= EENTH SESSION OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the T= welfth Session=E2=80=9D, SR.19/12 (December 1961), p. 196. </span= > 29 SCHOLEMANN, Hannes L. & OHLHOFF, Stefa= n (1999): =E2=80=9CConstitutional= ization and Dispute Settlement in the WTO: National Security as an Issue o= f Competence=E2=80=9D, American Journal of International L= aw, Vol. 93, pp. 424, 436. 30 <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">Analytical Index (2012), p. 603. <= /p>31 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, NOTIFICATION BY THE = SWEDISH DELEGATION: =E2=80=9CSweden =E2=80=93 Import R= estrictions on Certain Footwear=E2=80=9D, L/4250 (November 1975),= p. 3. 32 BHALA, Raj (1998): <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:0.1pt">=E2=80=9CNational Security and Internationa= l Trade Law: What the GATT Says, and what the United States = ;Does=E2=80=9D,= University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Econo= mic Law, Vol 19, pp. 263, 273. 33 </sp= an> GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2= =80=9CTrade Restrictions Affecting Argentina Applied for Non-economic </sp= an>Reasons=E2=80=9D, C/M/157 (June 1982), p. 10. = 34 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 11-12. 22 <img src= =3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAAB= HNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwB= JKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/WojukI672q53QCgN2u04ElPtW7uk1HWO+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPzyBUz0BO5NnbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>determine what their essential security interests a= re, justification had to be provided in cases where no <= span class=3D"stl07">involvement of security interests were apparent= 35. Although a panel was not established, th= is discussion led the Contracting Pa= rties to adopt the Decision concerning article XXI of the General Agreemen= t36. The document provides that when a measure is taken under Article XXI= , Contracting Parties must be </p= >notifi= ed, subject only to the exceptions in Article XXI (a). However, it still le= ft significant loopholes. It neither= provided an objective standard by which a panel could evaluate an Article = XXI claim nor defined =E2=80=9Creasons of security=E2=80=9D. It was als= o of a temporary character, until the Contracting Parties decided to ma= ke a formal interpretation of the article. More significantly, it was a mis= sed opportunity for members to provi= de clarification on the issue of justiciability. Instead, they determined t= hat all contracting parties affected= by an Article XXI measure retained their full rights under the GATT. </spa= n> Among those rights remains to bring forth= a complaint to a dispute settlement body and receive a <= span class=3D"stl07">determination on the righteousness of the measure. The= document, therefore, seems to echo the = position taken by the members during the preparatory works regarding Ar= ticle XXI not being in conflict with= Article XXIII. In 1985, the US impo= sed a trade embargo against Nicaragua37, prompting the latter to bring a </sp= an>= complaint before the GATT Council. Nicaragua asked the Council to condemn t= he embargo and request the US to rev= oke the measures on the grounds that these were taken as a coercion tool fo= r political reasons38</span= >. The Nicara= guan representative added that it was =E2=80=9Cabsurd to suggest that Nicar= agua, = a small and underdeveloped country, could pose a threat to the n= ational security of one of the most </sp= an>powerful countries in the world=E2= =80=9D, and further noted that there was currently no armed conflict betwee= n = 0;them39. The US justified the em= bargo based on Article XXI (b) (iii) and sustained that proper <span= class=3D"stl07"> notifica= tion of the measure was provided to the members. The US rejected the GATT= =E2=80=99s jurisdiction to judge political or security issues, reinforc= ing their claim that the organization could not approve or disapprove measures deemed to be necessary for the s= afeguard of national security interests40. In regards to the jurisdiction of the GATT, Australia supported= the US=E2=80=99 challenge and added that the appropriate forum for dis= cussions of security issues was the United Nations Security Council<= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >41. The </= span>EC approached the question differently, by simply stating that Article XX= I of GATT was self-judging. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">However,= they also noted that in exercising this discretion, members should act res= ponsibly, and with discernment and= moderation, in order to avoid arbitrary invocations42<span= class=3D"stl07">. Nineteen out of the forty-three countries who addressed the Panel supported the self-judging= interpretation43. In contrast, Polan= d and 35 =C3=8Ddem, = p. 12. 36 &#x= a0;GENERAL AGRE= EMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE: =E2=80=9CDecision concerning article XXI of the= General Agreement=E2=80=9D, L/5426 (December 1982). </spa= n>37 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Executive Order No. 12513, (05/= 01/1985). 38 GENERAL = AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">-= Trade measures affecting Nicaragua=E2=80=9D, <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">C= /M/188 (June 1985), p. 2. 39 =C3=8Dde= m, p. 3. 40 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 4-5. = 41 =C3=8Ddem, p. 12. </= p>42 =C3=8Ddem, p. 14. 43 ALFO= RD (2001), p. 713. 23 <= /span> </= p><img src=3D"data:image/png;bas= e64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAl= wSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB/1JREFUeJzt2MEJAlEQBcFeFEEv5mAo5h+CYA5eRTACQdjD8K= EqgmZOjykAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIAftumARV= yqW3WYDmF5r+o5HQHA2o7TAYu4VvfqPB3C8h4ZcADs5AP3n6065V7s96ne0xEAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACv5AsAiBhzfolD7AAAAAElFTk= SuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /= >Chile rejected the argument that the GATT was= not competent to know and decide Article XXI = claims44. There were also significant arguments against the se= lf-judging character of the article. The Cuban delegate, siding with Nicaragua, stressed that whenever invoking= Article XXI, parties should be <= /p>requ= ired to justify it with relevant facts in order to prevent abuses of the sy= stem45. Similarly, but providing more specificity, India sustained that a= member invoking Article XXI (b) (iii) should provide <spa= n class=3D"stl07">a nexus between the measure taken and its security intere= st46. Brazil further noted that the i= nvocation of the article =E2=80=9Cshould = only be exercised in light of other international obligations such as those= assumed under the UN charter= =E2=80=9D47. A panel was established to decide on the US trade embargo ag= ainst Nicaragua, but its terms of </span= >re= ference precluded it from examining or judging the validity or motivation f= or the invocation of Article XXI (b)= (iii) by the US48. These narrow terms were the result of a compromise, = given the US=E2=80=99 opposition to the establishment of a panel if thi= s provision was to be evaluated. Nonetheless, the panel <= span class=3D"stl07">still made some observations about the article. They s= uggested that even tough trade embargoes are &= #xa0;contrary to GATT principles of certainty and trade liberalizatio= n, the purpose of the article was not </= span>to make parties forego measures needed to protect their essential securit= y interests49. The most relevant </sp= an> contribution of the report was a stateme= nt stressing that a party invoking a measure under Article XXI <span= class=3D"stl07"> should carefully weigh its security needs agains= t the need to maintain stable trade relations50. Despite the report was = not adopted51, the panel implied the = standard of review under which an Article XXI = measure would be analyze= d. They would consider if the member =E2=80=9Ccarefully=E2=80=9D, perhaps r= easonably, weighted the balance of their alleged national security inte= rest being protected and the trade </spa= n>relationship with the member subject= ed to the measure. The panel=E2=80=99s view of a =E2=80=9Ccareful=E2=80=9D = balance when <span= class=3D"stl07">deciding the measure was the echo of statements of a signi= ficant number of States who considered <= /span>that the invocation of the article should be made with utmost prudence, = especially when invoked by a = develop= ed country. The first and only compl= aint brought to a WTO panel has been United States-The Cuban Liberty and </= span> Democratic Solidarity Act. The EC file= d a request for consultations after the US adopted the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act52</= span>. The US, following their same argument as in pr= evious cases, 44 <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt"> GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUni= ted States - Trade measures affecting = Nicaragua=E2=80=9D</span= >, C/M/188 (June 1985), p. 8. </= p>45 =C3=8Ddem, p. 5. 46 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 11. 47 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 7-8. <= /span> <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">48 </spa= n>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON= TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Tra= de measures affecting Nicaragua - Panel established under Arti= cle XXIII:2=E2=80=9D, C/M/196 (Apr. 1986). 49 </= span> GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, PANEL REPO= RT (1986): =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">Trade <= /p>measures affecting Nica= ragua=E2=80=9D, L/6053, =E2=81=8B5.16. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">50 = =C3=8Ddem. 51 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">The panel ultimately concluded that, as it couldn=E2=80=99t analyze this = provision, they could not find the US neither non- = 0;compliant nor= compliant with its GATT obligations. See =C3=ADdem, =E2=81=8B5.3. <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;52 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, REQ= UEST FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A PANEL BY THE EUROPE= AN COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBER STATES: =E2=80=9CUnited States - = The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act=E2=80=9D, WT/DS3= 8/2 (October 1996). 24 = <= /p><img src=3D"data:image/png;ba= se64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAA= lwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jENAgEQAMElgeJpMEKHfwsoeAeYwAHt5ciMg= i23AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4D9dpgOWeFSv6jYdwnqf6j0dAcBu1+mAJe7VszqmQ1jvzMABAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAP30BKAkD775/hCYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624"= height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />invoked Article XXI to justify its measure53<spa= n class=3D"stl07">. This was the first opportunity for a panel to fully analyze = Article XXI and issue a binding report. The= EC did not make counterarguments to the invocation of <= span class=3D"stl07">the provision54;= perhaps because they had been on the other side of the dispute before and = used the same exception to justify s= everal measures. The parties settled the case. V. Considerations by the International Court of Justice <= /p>It i= s worth mentioning how another dispute settlement body, the International C= ourt of Justice (ICJ), has understoo= d Article XXI in light of similar national security exception clauses in bi= lateral treaties. Nicaragua brought = a complaint to the ICJ alleging, inter alia, = that the trade embargo imposed upon </sp= an>= them by the US was in open violation of the obligations acquired under the = bilateral treaty on Freedom, Commer= ce, and Navigation (FCN). The FCN contained a clause that stated that "the = present Treaty shall not preclude th= e application of measures ... (d) necessary to fulfill the obligations </sp= an> of a Party for the maintenance or restor= ation of international peace and security, or necessary to protect its = essential security interests." The Court compared the FCN=E2=80=99<s= pan class=3D"stl07">s security exceptions with those <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">in the GATT. They = manifested that the GATT=E2=80=99s Article XXI contained the phrase = it </s= pan>[the member] <= /span>considers necessary</span= >, and the FC= N, on the other hand, did not make reference =E2=80=9Cto what the party =E2= =80=98considers <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">necessary=E2=80= =99 for that purpose=E2=80=9D55. In i= ts decision, the ICJ found the trade embargo violated the FCN and <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> that the security exception clause was not se= lf-judging. The Court also implied, au contraire, that Article XXI of the GATT wa= s self-judging. In the Oil Platforms= Case56, the ICJ addressed a controve= rsy dealing preliminarily with a similar = ;exception under a FCN treaty. In this regard, the Court maintained the= opinion that such provisions </p= >were n= ot self-judging and therefore subject of an objective standard of review</s= pan>57. However, in this case the ICJ did not offer any analogy with the GATT se= curity exceptions clause. It is possible to infer from the ICJ=E2=80=99= s statements that security exceptions are justiciable in the cases <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> <= /p>conc= erned (Oil Platforms and Nicaragua). However, while acknowledging the justi= ciability of such exceptions under F= CN treaties, the ICJ clearly distinguished Article XXI of the GATT and infe= rred its self-judging character. </s= pan> VI. Academic Debate 53 </span= >WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT BODY (1996): =E2=80=9C</sp= an>United States - The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act - R= equest by the European Communities and their member States for the establis= hment of a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/24. <= /p>54 ORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT BODY (1997): =E2= =80=9CUnited States - The Cuban Liberty </= p>and Democratic Solidarit= y Act - Request by the European Communities and their member States for the= establishment of a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/26. </= p>55 = MILITARY AND PA= RAMILITARY ACTIVITIES IN AND AGAINST NICARAGUA (Nicar. v. U.S.), = <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >International Court of Justice. Judgment, June 27, 1986, I.C.J. Rep. 14, <= /span>=E2=81=8B</spa= n>282. See also Opinion of Jose E. Alvarez, Sempra </spa= n>Energy Int'l & C= amuzzi Int'l v. Republic of Argentina, ARB/02/16 and ARB/03/02, p. 6 (9/12/= 2005). Available at: http://ita.law.uvic.ca/documents/CamuzziSempraAlvarez= Opinion.pdf. 56 OIL PLATFORMS </= span>(Iran v. U.S.), International Court of Justice. Judgment on the Mer= its, November 6, 2003. 57 ALFORD (2001= ), p. 41. 25 <sp= an class=3D"stl47" style=3D"letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBO= Rw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAA= OxAAADsQBD6fLggAACNVJREFUeJzt3SGOlFEQhdFb3QQxhBASCALFsAcWgUSyDRyrQbIBFJolIM= CwBWbSATOdYgVMGjPvr+Yc/cQnr3hJJQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADAVtTqgCGeJ3mb5GJ1CON9S/JxdQQAsxlwp7lIcplkvzqE8a6T/FgdA= QAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABwq1odcC66+2mSl6s7AGC4Y5LvVX= W1OmTL7q0OOCOvk3xYHQEAk3X3oareJPm8umXLdqsDAAD4NwYcAMAwBhwAwDAGHADAMAYcAMAwB= hwAwDAGHADAMAYcAMAwBhwAwDAuMZygu/dJHuSWwXs8Hu/vdrvD3VUBW1RV3d3H1R0wVVUdktys= 7tg6A+40L5K8T/Lwbw/2+/2z7v59d0nAFnX3r6p6t7oDBrtJ8nV1xNY5Zn+C7n6V5FOSJ6tbgM3= 7WVWPV0cA580fOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGGc0j= rNdXd/SfJodQiweW4iAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8H/4A42VM8T23pY0AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624= " height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />The academic debate around the scope and extent of Article XXI o= f the GATT is diverse. While some </span= >sc= holars advocate for the justiciability of Article XXI, others argue that su= ch provision cannot be subjected to the GATT=E2=80=99s dispute settleme= nt dispositions. Raj Bhala favors the latter interpretation. He <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> = contend= s that Article XXI (b) provides an effective solution to this debate, in th= e context that its own language purposely inserts the word =E2=80=98it= =E2=80=99, and therefore =E2=80=9Cno WTO panel or other adjudicatory body, = = has any right to determine whet= her a measure =E2=80=A6 satisfies its requirements=E2=80=9D58</spa= n>. He shares the defense made by the EC regarding the trade embargo against Argentina, w= hich asserts that the sanctioning </span= >me= mber does not have to notify or justify to, or seek approval or ratificatio= n from any Member when invoking Arti= cle XXI. He sustains that the Decision Concerning Article XXI <span= class=3D"stl07">does not impose on Members &#= xa0;an obligation to notify sin= ce its wording lets them decide whether notification is =E2=80=9Cpossible= =E2=80=9D59. Although Bhala=E2=80= =99s argument is certainly valid, the Decision Concerning Article XXI </sp= an>should be read as imposing an <= span class=3D"stl07">obligation to notify while giving the sanctioning memb= er the discretion to determine which details will not be disclosed. <= /p>Bhal= a also suggests that while nothing prevents a State from bringing a claim a= gainst a member invoking Arti= cle XXI, a WT= O panel is not likely to adjudicate on the merits the claimant=E2=80=99s in= vocation of that article60. He sa= ys it is likely that the WTO will keep interpreting its terms of reference = narrowly, as in the US-Nicaragua rep= ort. Bhala suggests that good faith = of the members is the only way to avoid abusi= ve invocations of article XXI= 61. Nevertheless, he advocates for the delim= itation of Article XXI (b), based on a reasonableness <spa= n class=3D"stl07">standard that would objectively evaluate whether a reason= able government facing the same <= /p>circ= umstances would have invoked the provision. This argument appears to be in = contradiction with his self-judgin= g interpretation of Article XXI. If the article is not justiciable, the que= stion remains open on who should d= elimit subparagraph (b) and who should determine the reasonableness of the = measure. Bhala does not clarify this. For Bhala=E2=80=99s claim of deli= mitation to be valid, it would have to at least require Article XXI (b)= to be justiciable. Roger Alford an= alyzed the preparatory works and also advocates for the self-judging charac= teristic of the exception, concluding that the members=E2=80=99 intenti= on was for Article XXI to be invoked in limited circumstances but for t= hem to reserve the right to determine when they would invoke it<span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">62<= /span>. </p= >Contra= ry to Bhala and Alford, other commentators have elaborated strong arguments= in favor of the justiciability of a= rticle XXI. Particularly, the opinions of Lindsay, Scholemann and Ohlhoff, = and Akande and Williams are notewor= thy. Akande and Williams argue that = allowing Article XXI to be self-judging would be to undermine the <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> legal= effects of the GATT since it will leave compliance with obligations to the= members=E2=80=99 discretion63. </spa= n> Scholemann and Ohlhoff sustain that allow= ing members to block the jurisdiction of the dispute <span= class=3D"stl07">settlement bodies just by invoking this article would be t= o transform a substantive issue into a <= /span>58 BHALA (1998), pp. 268-69. = 59 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 270-271. 60 </span= >=C3=8Ddem, p 279. 61 =C3=8Ddem, p= 313. 62 ALFORD (2001), p. 699. = 63 AKANDE, Dapo & WILLIAMS, Sope <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >(2003): =E2=80=9CInternational Adjudication on National Security= Issues: What Role for the WTO=E2=80=9D, Virginia Journa= l of International Law, Vol. 43, pp. 365, 384. </= span>26 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMo= CAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJz= t1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQHA2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/= pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92= pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />procedural one, and would contradict the WTO=E2=80=99s purpose = of strengthening the multilateral system64. They further argue that beca= use the DSU applies to all covered agreements, including the GATT, and </sp= an> there is no explicit reference excluding= Article XXI, it is clear that a panel has jurisdiction to decide <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> these claims65. This argument is very compelling because, once again, members had = the opportunity to exclude <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">the invocations= of security exceptions from the DSU. Furthermore, they label as =E2=80=9Cc= learly justiciable=E2=80=9D tho= se situations where there is no risk to a security interest or whenever a m= easure has no <spa= n class=3D"stl07">effect protecting said interest66. Nonetheless, this assertion remains dubious at best. The de= termination of essential security in= terests is subjective to each country and their sociopolitical circumstance= s; it is not possible for those limits to be =E2=80=9Cclear=E2=80=9D. <= /span> <= /span>Scholemann and Ohlhoff tend to favor the position that while panels shou= ld have an interpretative role, they= would not have definitional authority67. Clarifying this interpretation, Lindsay pointed out <= span class=3D"stl07">that it is up to members to decide what <span= class=3D"stl07">measure to apply, while leaving to a WTO panel the jurisdi= ction to objectively review <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'">when </= span>the measure would be applied68= . It should be noted that a member, when <span= class=3D"stl07"> making a decision to protect its security intere= sts, does not only analyze the measure to be taken but <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">also the corre= ct timing and duration of it. Separating the substance of the measure from = the member=E2=80=99s determination of when to apply it would likely ren= der an incomplete and flawed analysis. <= /span>Lindsay suggests that the US =E2=80=93 Czechoslov= akia and EC =E2=80=93 Yugoslavia disputes are clear = indications that Article XXI is subj= ect to Article XXIII69. The Czechoslo= vakia case was significant since the GATT = 0;Council did not deny jurisdiction to make a determination on the issu= e. The EC, in the dispute with </= p>Yugoslavia, never objected the establish= ment of a panel, indicating that they would accept the panel=E2=80=99s </sp= an> </sp= an>= jurisdiction to decide on the matter. The latter, in addition to Con= tracting Part= ies=E2=80=99 statements during the preparatory works and the <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'">Decision = Concerning Article XXI, have driven Lindsay to= suggest that it is unlikely a pane= l would reject jurisdiction70. Furthe= rmore, he warns about the large loophole that would be created in the system if the WTO were to reject its juri= sdiction on Article XXI. VII. Standard of Review </= p>The p= anel in its non-binding report in US =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting = Nicaragua, discussed above, hinted <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> which standard of review would be applicable in= the event of having the terms of reference to do so. <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">The panel would a= nalyze if the member =E2=80=9Ccarefully=E2=80=9D weighted the balance of th= e security interest and the trade relation with the member subject of t= he measure. Nevertheless, it would be na=C3=AFve not to <= span class=3D"stl07">stress that typically nations value their security int= erests much higher than its trade relations. &= #xa0;Consequently, while a member may give careful thought to its tra= de relations before imposing a </= p>measu= re based on Article XXI, the balance will generally tilt towards safeguardi= ng its alleged national security. </= span> 64 SCHOLEMANN & OH= LHOFF (1999), pp. 439-440. </spa= n>65 =C3=8Ddem, p. 441. 66 <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >=C3=8Ddem, p. 443. 67 =C3=8Ddem, p. 44= 8. 68 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1287. <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 69 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 1293-1294. </= span>70 =C3=8Ddem. 27 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACQ1JREFUeJzt3T1uFEEUhdH7WiMjILH4yUiQ= WANbYBeInMUQswx2QMIiyAgNJCDZGAfTRUBA6MEgqt9wjlRZBzfrT62WKgEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAIMnTJJ+TDMf5w/MmAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD/qZo94JiMMU6TnM7eAQCNrUk+VdX32= UO2bDd7wJF5keTl7BEA0NhFfr5L380esmUC7i9a1/X+sixPZu8AgK7GGOdVdWf2jq1bZg8AAOD3= CDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuInhAGOMh0meJbl1zaOP1nV= 9/w8mAcCxutzv95ezR2ydgDvM4ySvkjy47sFl8VETAG5qjHG+2+1uz96xdWoDAKAZAQcA0IyAAw= BoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZNzEcZj/GOBtjXM0eAp1U1VWSdfYOoJWLJ= N9mj9g6AXeYparu5YCrtIBfqup5krezdwCtjCRfZo/YOgF3mEpyUlUns4dAM1+r6uPsEQDHxj9w= AADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuInhMGfrur5Ocnf2EOh= kWZYPszcAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA3MQPvAvLEyBY6Z8AAAAASUV= ORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolu= te" />Cann71, joined by Akande and Williams72, hold that the determination of the necessity of a measure for security reasons is subjective and as such sh= ould be determined by the members themselves and not be reviewable by third parties. They also concur that a pa= nel should have the jurisdiction to </sp= an>= reviewing the measure under a good faith standard. Akande and Williams add = that in order to properly analyze the member=E2=80=99s good faith, a pa= nel would have to review the purpose of the me= asure73. Both positions seem contradictory. In order to determine good fa= ith under their proposed standard, and to = 0;review the purpose of the measure, a panel must do some analysis of t= he necessity of the measure. = Further= more, Cann argues that applying this good faith standard should be enough to =E2= =80=9Cprohibit <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">74= <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">discriminatory = actions=E2=80=9D . But, if the Contracting Part= ies had intended for security exception = invocations to be non-discriminatory they would have left them under Ar= ticle XX and subjected to the chapea= u test. Akande and Williams suggest that in order to comply with the good f= aith standard, the invoking member =E2=80=9Cmust genuinely believe that= the measure taken is necessary to protect its national security interests=E2=80=9D. They argue a panel sh= ould examine whether the member considered an = essential security interest threaten= ed and whether the measure was a proportional response to the threat75. H= owever, this interpretation would give panels too much authority to determi= ne what is not an =E2=80=9Cessential security interest=E2=80=9D, what i= s not a =E2=80=9Cthreat=E2=80=9D, and what is not =E2=80=9Cproportionate re= sponse=E2=80=9D; these determin= ations should always be left to the States=E2=80=99 since an objective eval= uation of these elements is highly unlikely. Scholemann and Ohlhoff, who also propose a good faith standard= of review, contend that it should </spa= n>b= e applied by analyzing the reasonableness of the measure76= . Akande and Williams reject the <= span class=3D"stl07">reasonableness standard on the basis that the drafters= could have included this requirement but = 0;refrained from doing so. Using the same argument, we could rebuttal t= heir good faith standard proposition= on the grounds that drafters could also have included a good faith require= ment. The scholars that support the = good faith standard do recognize the challenges in applying it. Difficulty = of proving a government acted in bad= faith77 and who bears the burden</sp= an>78 are but a few of them. VIII. = State Practice The WTO = Agreement states that the organization =E2=80=9Cshall be guided by the deci= sions, procedures and customary= practices=E2=80=9D79 of its members.= With this clause, the WTO acknowledged the prospective <= span class=3D"stl07">effects of State practice vis-a-vis the treaty. The VCLT provides for general and supplementary rul= es 71 CANN, Wesley A. Jr. (2001): =E2=80=9CCreating Stan= dards and Accountability for the Use of the WTO Security Exception: = Reduci= ng the Role of Power-Based Relations and Establishing a New Balan= ce between Sovereignty and Multilateralism=E2=80=9D, </span= >Yale Journal o= f International Law, Vol. 26, pp. 413, 480. </spa= n>72 AKANDE & WILLIAM (2003), pp. 398-399. = ;73 =C3=8Ddem, p. 396. 74 </s= pan>CANN (2001), p. 452. 75 AKANDE &= amp; WILLIAMS (2003), p. 399. 76 SCHOLE= MANN & OHLHOFF (1999), pp. 443-445. 77 </spa= n>=C3=8Ddem; AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 393. </spa= n>78 AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 394. </= span>79 MARRAKESH AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING THE = WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, Morocco (4/15/1994), Article 16. = ;28 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAA= AAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACIFJREF= UeJzt3TFqFkAURtE7ksoi2KQSsgErNxA7s5W0rsTGvaRJkcZdWIRgZ6MQAoIyKdyAPyRMJpzTP/= jK270CAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIBnaawesIl31ZfqzeohbO+6+rR6= BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAM/PWD0A4CWbc76uzqvT1VtY6nd1Ncb4dujhnPN9dVZ9ry7HGPe= PPY79HK0eAPDCHVcX1cfVQ1hnzvlzjPGjOjjgqg/V5+q6+loJOHq1egAAAIcRcAAAmxFwAACbEX= AAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAm/HMHuAJzTmP+vfI/nj1Fpb6W= 92OMX4dejjnPKneVnfVzRjjz2OPAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgP/3ABfrI9qkU1wNAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>for treaty interpretation80. The general rule remains that a treaty should be interprete= d in light of the principle of good = faith, its ordinary meaning with due regard for the context, and its object= and purpose. Nevertheless, the VCLT= signals that together with the context, it should be taken into <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> account, inter alia, =E2=80=9Cany subsequent practi= ce in the application of the treaty which esta= blishes the agreement of the parties=E2=80=9D81. The VCLT, showing its own age, prompted the International L= aw Commission (ILC) to expand or c= larify the scope and content of several of its provision. In 2014, the </sp= an> ILC developed a series of guidelines for= the effects of subsequent practice of States in relation to treaties82. In its report, special rapporteur G= eorg Nolte referred to the WTO Appellate Body=E2=80=99s report <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">on </spa= n>Japa= n =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II, which of= fered a definition of subsequent practice in treaty interpretation as t= he sequence of acts or pronouncements that are =E2=80=9Cconcordant, common, and </span= >consistent=E2=80=9D83= . While acknowledging the position of the Appellate B= ody, he asserted that such standard </sp= an>establishes a high threshold under = Article 31 (3) (b) =E2=80=9Crequir[ing] a particularly broad-based, settled, </= p>and q= ualified form of collective practice in order to establish agreement betwee= n the parties regarding interpretation=E2=80=9D84. He further notes that the Appellate Body seems to have ta= ken that standard from Sir Ian Sincl= air85, who considered the value of su= bsequent practice dependent on =E2=80=9Cthe extent to which it is concordant, common and consistent=E2=80=9D. = Subsequently, in EC =E2=80=94 Computer Equipment, the Appellate Body loosened t= he criteria established in Japan =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II= . It held tha= t =E2=80=9C[t]he purpose of treaty interpretation is to establish the <= /span>= common [emphasis in original] intention of the= parties to the treaty. To establish= this intention, the prior practice of only one </= span>[emphasis in original] of the parties <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> may be relevant, but it is clearly of more lim= ited value than the practice of all parties=E2=80=9D86. The Appellate <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Body impl= ied that in order for subsequent practice to be a legitimate mean of interp= retation it does not need to be prac= ticed by all members. Rather, the interpretative value increases in the mea= sure more members engage in such pra= ctice. Therefore, the lack of a formal interpretation of the article, </spa= n> together with these provisions and statem= ents, leads to the conclusion that pronouncements and <spa= n class=3D"stl07">actions by a majority of states is the most legitimate an= d reliable mechanism to interpret the scope and applicability of Article XXI. = 0;During the preparatory works discussions, the Contracting Parties see= med to have accorded a special </= p>treat= ment to Article XXI but nonetheless made it subject to judicial review unde= r the proper dispute settlement mech= anisms. Due regard should be given to the statement by the US delegate, who= shared that the security exceptions= were not outside the scope of the dispute settlement provisions. However, = there has been an apparent shift fro= m that position. The parties=E2=80=99 statements and practice since the <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> </= p>GATT = entered into force seem to indicate that a significant number of States fav= or the position that 80 </span= >VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969) = Art. 31-32. 81 =C3=8Ddem, Article 31 </= span>=E2=81=8B</span= >3(b). 82 UNITED N= ATIONS, INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION: =E2=80=9CSecond Report on s= ubsequent agreements and subsequent practice in relation to the interpreta= tion of treaties of Its Sixty-Sixth Session=E2=80=9D, A/CN.4/671 = (3/ 26/2014) (ILC Report). </spa= n> 83 </= span>WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1996): =E2=80=9CJa= pan =E2=80=94 Alcoholic Beverages II=E2=80=9D, <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'; font-size:= 10pt"> WT/= DS8/AB/R, WT/DS10/AB/R, WT/DS11/AB/R. 84 </span= >ILC Report, =E2=81=8B21. <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">85 = SINCLAIR, Ian (1984): The Vienna Convention on t= he Law of Treaties (Manchester University Press), p. 137. = 86 </spa= n> WORLD= TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1998): =E2=80=9CEC =E2=80=94 Co= mputer Equipment=E2=80=9D, WT/DS62/AB/R, WT/DS67/AB/R, WT/DS68/AB/R, </spa= n>=E2=81=8B<s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt">93. <= /p>29 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAA= BPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENg= DAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jrYIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB84pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7q= nEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD81wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width= =3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><span= class=3D"stl07">the invocation of national security exception is enough to= preclude a panel from knowing and judging &#x= a0;the righteousness of such measure. = 0;Close attention must also be paid to the frequency with which members= have invoked Article XXI and brough= t complaints under it. The few Article XXI cases brought to the GATT/WTO du= ring its more than 60-year history e= vidences a lot of restraint from members in invoking security exceptions. <= /span> This restraint, however, together wit= h weak dispute settlement provisions that were in place before <span= class=3D"stl07"> the adoption of the DSU, must be the principal r= eason panels and appellate bodies have not had the opportunity to determine the justiciability and scope of the= article, much less its standard of review. &#= xa0;One reason for such restraint may be that States acknowledge that t= he ambiguity surrounding the = justici= ability of the article actually favors them. Scholars as Lindsay favor this =E2= =80=98constructive=E2=80=99 ambiguity, arguing that allowing members = to address the security exception through less formal methods permits </spa= n> greater flexibility in timing and respons= e, protects real and perceived concerns over national <spa= n class=3D"stl07">sovereignty, and provides the necessary checks against ab= use of these exceptions87. <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> In the discussions regarding United States </= span>= =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting Nicaragua = a majority of States seemed <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">to have = agreed that an Article XXI invocation should be made in good faith and exer= cised with prudence; but leaving tho= se determinations to each member. As Alford has correctly pointed out, </sp= an> regardless a panel may interpret it othe= rwise, Article XXI has been self-judging88. IX. </= span>&#x= a0;Mitigating Abuses </spa= n> = The main argument of States who oppose the self-judging interpretation = is that this determination will <= /p>lead= to abuses and its invocation could serve as a hard bargaining technique us= ed by powerful members against weak = ones. These are valid concerns; nonetheless, States themselves can prevent = abuses by holding each other account= able in a number of ways. Alford has= suggested four mechanisms contemplated by the WTO which would help mitigat= ing abuse of the clause. Under Artic= le XXXV of the GATT, and upon the accession of a new member, a <span= class=3D"stl07"> Contracting Party may declare their trading rela= tions will not be subject to GATT/WTO obligations89. Since a super-majori= ty is needed to accede the organization, according to Alford the purpose of= the article was to allow members wh= o voted against the admission not to be obliged towards the new <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> member. This opt-out, or non-application, provi= sion has seldom been invoked. </p= >Just a= s the system lets members opt-out of obligations, Article XXIV permits part= ies to enter into preferential trade= agreements (PTA) to further liberalize trade between its members. Alford s= uggests that members of a PTA can in= corporate an objective security exception. This way, the invocation of </sp= an> such security exception will be justicia= ble in relation to the PTA members, while the self-judging standard will remain for non-PTA members<span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">90<= /span>. </p= >87 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1312. 88 </spa= n>ALFORD (2001), p. 708. 89 =C3=8Dde= m, p. 726. 90 =C3=8Ddem, p. 733. </spa= n> 30 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUh= EUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLgg= AAB+hJREFUeJztzkENAgEQALGBkPsgABTiClenAgN8kbFZ0ipoAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwVy7TgSWO6lFd= pyOs960+0wkAdrtNB5Z4Vq/qPh1hvbN6TycAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAF= b4ARMGBADJpJB4AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />Another mechanism a m= ember can implement is altering the discretionary tariff benefits given to = other members. However, these discre= tionary tariff benefits can only be applied by developed countries <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'">vis- </= span>&= #xa0;a-vis <spa= n class=3D"stl07">developing countries91. Nonetheless, this alternative could prevent the over invocation of Art= icle XXI, since a developed country = could meet its objectives by removing or suspending a tariff benefit </span= > without the need of invoking a security ex= ception. The WTO also contemplates c= ases where a measure adopted is not contrary to the covered agreements </sp= an> but nonetheless nullifies or impairs ben= efits. In fact, when discussing the inclusion of this non- violation remedy92, the working party used the example of an invocation under the secur= ity exceptions which would be permissible by the Charter but could none= theless impair or nullify other members=E2=80=99 benefits93</s= pan>. In those cases, the working party continued, a = member could bring a claim not on the </= span>grounds that the measure violates the Charter, but on the basis of an imp= airment or nullification of <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">benefits= . Therefore, while a Panel could not review an Article XXI measure, it woul= d retain the jurisdiction determine = whether there is an impairment or nullification of benefits. The invoking <= /span> member does not have to remove the me= asure, but the affected party is entitled to damages94<span= class=3D"stl07">. Alford correctly argues that this is an exceptional = remedy which =E2=80=9Cshould be approached with caution=E2=80=9D<spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">95= and </span= >th= erefore should be invoked only for controversial national security invocati= ons96. &= #xa0;Member States also have the ability to solve the issues that pro= mpt the adoption of Article XXI <= /p>meas= ures by recurring to alternate mechanisms other than those contemplated in = the GATT/WTO. For example, the US re= ached an agreement with the EC outside the GATT/WTO system, which led </spa= n> the latter to withdraw its WTO complaint.= Parties who are members of the same= regional organization could attempt to discuss the issue and work out a solution with the help of other member= s; or, they can use it as a platform to rally support <spa= n class=3D"stl07">for their position. Moreover, members must certainly look= to the United Nations to seek redress for &#x= a0;measures adopted for national security reasons. Article 33 of the Un= ited Nations Charter mandates </p= >partie= s to any dispute which is likely to endanger the maintenance of internation= al peace and security to seek soluti= ons through the appropriate means of pacific settlement of disputes. The Se= curity Council, when it deems it nec= essary, can call upon the parties to solve their dispute through such </spa= n> means97. It can be argued that State= =E2=80=99s real or perceived threat to its national security is likely to e= ndanger or constitute a threat to international peace and security. Con= sequently, if a State believes its national &#= xa0;security is compromised because of the actions another State, it co= uld recur to the United Nations <= /p>syst= em to seek relief instead of imposing a GATT/WTO measure under Article XXI<= /span>98. In fact, during <= span class=3D"stl07">the preparatory works of the GATT the Contracting Part= ies addressed which organization, if any, was = 91 =C3=8Ddem, p. 741. </p= >92 =C3=8Ddem, p. 747. 93 <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt"> UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND= EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9CReport of Working Party of Sub- <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;Committe= e G of Committee VI on Chapter VIII=E2=80=9D, E/CONF.2/C.6/W.30 (= 1/9/1948). 94 MARRAKESH AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATIO= N, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing = the Settlement of Disputes Article 26 =E2=81=8B 1(b), Annex 2, = (1994) (DSU). 95 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (2001): =E2= =80=9CEuropean Communities-Measures </span= > Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Prod= ucts=E2=80=9D, WT/DSl35/AB/R, <span= class=3D"stl96" style=3D"letter-spacing:-0.05pt">=E2=81=8B186. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">96 ALFORD (2001), p. 748. = 0;97 UNITED NATIONS CHARTER, San Francisco (6/26/1945) = Article 33, =E2=81=8B 2. 98 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt"> With due regard to the imbalance that exists between coun= tries with veto power in the Security Council and those </= span>without it. </spa= n> 31 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUh= EUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLgg= AAB+tJREFUeJzt1rENwlAUwEBHKGU6FmBERmGzLJI6LSvQPX1xN4FLFwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMCEbTpgEa/qXR3TISzvrD7TEQCszcD9Zq+e= 1WM6hOXd1TUdAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAwH/7AvqBBAONN6eIAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" s= tyle=3D"position:absolute" />to determine the = impact of political measures in the international trade system. They agreed= it should to be the United Nations = and not the trade organization. Particularly, the representatives of the Un= ited Kingdom and Greece stated that = the trade organization was to be created to deal with economic <span= class=3D"stl07"> measures= and not political matters, and as such the latter should be under the Unit= ed Nations=E2=80=99 competence.= The Greek delegate went further by arguing that =E2=80=9Can economic measu= re taken for <span= class=3D"stl07">political reasons was not properly speaking an economic me= asure but a political measure and as such = 0;was not of the competence of = the [trade] Organization=E2=80=9D99. The US delegate=E2=80=99s statement= followed the <spa= n class=3D"stl07">same argument as the British and Greek representatives, b= ut emphasized that a political dispute was &#x= a0;to be dealt by the United Na= tions when the issue was within its jurisdiction, and that the Conference= =E2=80=99s function was not to take any stand on whether or not it supp= orted unilateral economic sanctions100. The Committee recommended draft= ing a specific article that would clarify the relationship and <span= class=3D"stl07"> jurisdiction of the new trade organization and t= he United Nations101, but it never ma= de it to the final General Agreeme= nt. X. </span= >Conclusion This paper h= as attempted to gather the various, and contradictory, interpretations give= n by several sources regarding Article XXI=E2=80=99s justiciability. An= y member can request the establishment of a panel to analyze the validi= ty of an Article XXI exception, as they have this right under Article VI of= the DSU, but we consider the panel = should reach the conclusion that the invoking member has the right to </spa= n> determine the appropriateness of the meas= ure. A WTO panel should not have the jurisdiction to define what does not constitute a national security intere= st, an essential security interest, or an emergency in <= span class=3D"stl07">international relations. Members must be the ones who = determine what issues concern their national &= #xa0;security and the measures to be taken in order to safeguard them= . Although some arguments in favor of Article XXI=E2=80=99s justic</spa= n>iability are persuasive, particularly the fact </sp= an> that members had several opportunities t= o clarify or modify the article to make it expressly self- judging, Article XXI should not be reviewable. If, a= s proposed by some scholars, a panel should have the jurisdiction only to determine the necessity or the timing= of the measure, such analysis could not = ;be made without making an assessment of its content and purpose. </spa= n> The most compelling argument in favor of = its self-judging characteristic is the interpretation States have given to it. While concerns for abuse of the = clause are valid, bringing a complaint to a &#= xa0;GATT/WTO panel is not the o= nly mechanism an affected member can use to seek relief. The article=E2=80= =99s &= #xa0;ambiguity is not necessarily bad for the system, and the m</span= >embers=E2=80= =99 restraint in invoking it demonstrates an underlying commitment not = to abuse the invocation of security exceptions and an implied recognition of alternative means to safeguard its= security interests. The time may come sooner rather <span= class=3D"stl07">than later for a panel to finally issue a binding decision= on the justiciability and scope of Article XXI. 99 = UNITED NATIONS CONFERENC= E ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Thirty<spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">-= <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Seventh Meeting=E2=80=9D, E/CONF,2/C.6/SR.37 (3/11/1948). </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">100 =C3=8Ddem. = 101 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLO= YMENT: =E2=80=9CReport of the Sixth Committee: <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Organization=E2=80=9D, E/CO= NF.2/68 (1948), Article 83 =E2=81=8Ba. 32 </div></di= v></body></html> --=boundary.Aspose.Words=-- Content-Disposition: inline; filename="times.ttf" Content-Type: application/octet-stream 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font-size:12pt }.stl03 { font-size:12pt }.stl05 { fo= nt-size:12pt }span.Heading1Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; font-size:16= pt; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading2Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; font-si= ze:13pt; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading3Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; fo= nt-size:12pt; color:#1f3763 }span.Heading4Char { font-family:'Calibri Light= '; font-style:italic; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading5Char { font-family:'Calib= ri Light'; color:#2f5496 }span.Heading6Char { font-family:'Calibri Light'; = color:#1f3763 }span.stl07 { font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:12pt; = color:#000000 }span.stl10 { letter-spacing:0pt }span.stl15 { letter-spacing= :0pt }span.stl47 { font-family:'CBKPLB+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; color:#000= 000 }span.stl96 { font-family:'Times New Roman'; font-size:10pt; color:#000= 000 }span.stlsup { vertical-align:baseline }</style></head><body><div class= =3D"Section1"><div style=3D"border:1pt solid #000000; clear:both"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw= 0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOx= AAADsQBD6fLggAACCxJREFUeJzt1s1pAmEYhdE7OFkEIa5cTy3WkB5swgYswyqycS9TRxoQJOBi= 8KeFLJSXT8+p4FldbgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAG3oqgOAYuv94uMy+86t+6pO4YGuGafdaqzOAJ6jrw4Aih2Pf9N8+ZPJHryW86m6AAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABeTVcd0IjPJEOSvjqE5p2S/FZHANA= 2h+R/hiTbJIvqEJp3SLKpjgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAeGd3vlcTjYstPQYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"62= 4" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN = 1607-4319) = Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 &#= xa0;pp. 16 - 32 Interpreting t= he Justiciability of GATT=E2=80=99s Article XXI: </spa= n>Security Except= ions=EA=A2=80 =EA=A2=81= Ana Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez </spa= n>*= Autor para Correspondencia. E-mail<a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gma= il.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank= " style=3D"text-decoration:none">anacarolina@illueca.com <= /span></a>Recibido: 14 de junio de 2021 </s= pan>Aceptado: 15 de julio de 2021 </= p>___________________= _________________________________ Resumen: El presente trabajo anali= za la justiciabilidad del art=C3=ADculo XXI del Acuerdo General sobre Aranc= eles Aduaneros y Comercio. Para ello= , se analiza: (i) el contenido del art=C3=ADculo XXI; (ii) su car=C3=A1cter= auto- justiciable; (iii) los trabaj= os preparatorios que conducen a su redacci=C3=B3n; (iv) las discusiones lle= vadas a cabo en el Acuerdo General s= obre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio/Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial del <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> Comercio; (v) las consideraciones de la Corte= Internacional de Justicia; (vi) las posturas acad=C3=A9micas; <span= class=3D"stl07"> (vii) el est=C3=A1ndar de revisi=C3=B3n; (viii) = la pr=C3=A1ctica de los Estados; (ix) las estrategias para prevenir el abus= o del Derecho; y (x) consideraciones= finales. Palabras clave: General Agreement on Tariffs an= d Trade, World Trade Organization, Article XXI, security <= span class=3D"stl07">exceptions, self-judging. Abstract: <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold'"> </sp= an>= This paper analyzes the justiciability of Article XXI of the General Agreem= ent on Trade and Tariffs. To this en= d, it delves into: (i) the content of Article XXI; (ii) its self-judging ch= aracter; (iii) the preparatory wor= ks that led to its factual wording; (iv) the discussions conducted before t= he General Agreement on Trade and Ta= riffs and the World Trade Organization system; (v) the International </span= > =EA=A2=80Ensayo presentado como parte del curso =E2=80=9C= International Trade Law=E2=80= =9D en la Maestr=C3=ADa en Derecho de la Universidad de <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > Nueva Yo= rk. =EA=A2=81Licen= ciada en Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La= Antigua, Summa Cum Laude<sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= ); Certificado en Cooperaci=C3=B3n y Soluci=C3=B3n de Conflictos (Teacher= =E2=80=99s College, Columbia University); Maestr=C3=ADa en Derecho (New Yor= k = University). Mediadora id=C3=B3nea en la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1, = y consultora y obeservadora electoral a nivel local e </spa= n>internacional. Miemb= ro de la Junta Directiva Global de Generaci=C3=B3n Democracia del Instituto= Republicano Internacional. 16 = <img src=3D"data:imag= e/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfA= hkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jr= YIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB84pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAD81wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" al= t=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Court of = Justice considerations; (vi) scholarly writings; (vii) the standard of revi= ew; (viii) the state practice; (ix) = the strategies for preventing legal abuses; and (x) it offers some final co= nsiderations. Keywords: Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles= Aduaneros y Comercio, Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial del Comercio, <span= class=3D"stl07"> art=C3=ADculo XXI, excepciones relativas a la se= guridad, auto-justiciable. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">I. <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold'">Introductio= n The General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT)1 </sp= an>embodies exceptions to the obligations and = principles of the agreement. Specifically, = Article XXI deals with security exceptions and reads as <= span class=3D"stl07">follows: </p= >=E2=80=9CNothing in this Agreement shall= be construed <spa= n class=3D"stl07">(a) to require any contracting party to furnish any infor= mation the disclosure of which </= p>it co= nsiders contrary to its essential security interests; or <= span class=3D"stl07">(b) to prevent any contracting party from taking any a= ction which it considers necessary f= or the protection of its essential security interests <spa= n class=3D"stl07">(i) relating to fissionable materials or the materials fr= om which they are derived; <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">(ii) rela= ting to the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and to such <= /span> traffic in other goods and materials = as is carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose <= span class=3D"stl07">of supplying a military establishment; (iii) taken in time of war or other emergency in in= ternational relations; or (c) to pre= vent any contracting party from taking any action in pursuance of its </spa= n> obligations under the United Nations Char= ter for the maintenance of international = ;peace and security.=E2=80=9D</= span>2 This provision is treated separately from the g= eneral exceptions contained in Article XX of the same <spa= n class=3D"stl07">instrument with an evident differentiation purpose. Artic= le XXI deals with security exceptions, <= /span>perhaps the most subjective and sensitive issue nations have jurisdictio= n over. This article has been </p= >subjec= t of debate, particularly over its self-judging character and justiciabilit= y. Among the legal questions raise= d is whether Article XXI exceptions are subject to the GATT dispute settlem= ent mechanism, enshrined in Article= XXIII. Those who claim its justiciability elaborate on the standard </span= > of review that a panel should apply when d= etermining violations of GATT obligations. The jurisprudence of the GATT/WTO does not provide a definitive answ= er to these questions3. Since the </s= pan> establishment of the GATT, members have= brought few complaints regarding measures justified <span= class=3D"stl07">under Article XXI but no binding report has been adopted. = Under the original GATT dispute <= /p>1 GENERAL = AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT), Geneva (October 30, 1947). <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 2 </spa= n>GATT, art. XXI. 3 LINDSAY, Peter (2003): =E2=80=9CThe Ambi= guity of GATT Article XXI: Subtle Success or Rampant Failure=E2=80=9D</span= >, Duke Law Journal, Vol. 52, pp. 1278-1279. </spa= n> 17 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhE= UgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggA= ACMRJREFUeJzt3TFqVWEUhdF9HiFNmhCEdJmAc0nhFKwsMxetHUgK7VNobWUrlipIQjyZwAOfCP= nveazV/s0uP7hcTgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMUqsHDPEyydsk56uHMN7HJDerRwAAA= AAAAAAAAAAArOAnhv/U3RdJrlbvAIAj8Zjka1X9WD1ky05WDzgC10nerx4BAMegu39W1askt6u3= bNlu9QAAAP6NgAMAGEbAAQAMI+AAAIYRcAAAwwg4AIBhBBwAwDACDgBgGAEHADCMSwwH6O5Kcpr= 9p8d23X3/zJOAgaqqk3R3r54CW/Y7yZ/VI7ZOwB3mKsmbJGf73rr7+zPvAQbq7sckH5Lcrd4CG/= ZQVV9Wj9g6AXeYyySvk7zY97jb+RIN/F1331fVp6p6t3oLMJvyAAAYRsABAAwj4AAAhhFwAADDC= DgAgGEEHADAMAIOAGAYAQcAMIyAAwAYxiWGw/zq7s9JzlcPAUZ7SPJt9QgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgmSdX8TS= 6U5jkwAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />settlement system, </= span>the pane= ls=E2=80=99 jurisdiction was curtailed by a requirement of consensus among = member States in order to issue a binding report. With the establishmen= t of the World Trade Organization </span= >(W= TO) and the adoption of the Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), a new dispute settlement mechanism gave panels more independence and much less power to = members to block the reports. </p= >Only o= n one occasion has an Article XXI complaint been brought under the new syst= em, and it was settled before a pane= l could issue a decision. The lack o= f a definitive GATT/WTO panel interpretation on the justiciability of measu= res invoked under the security excep= tions has left a loophole to be filled by alternative interpretations. The = purpose of this paper is to provide = guidance on the question of justiciability of Article XXI, security excepti= ons. The paper analyzes the preparat= ory works of Article XXI, along with its subsequent interpretation by </spa= n> member States in GATT/WTO forums. Additio= nally, considerations by the International Court of Justice will be provided. Academic opinions and relevant St= ate practice regarding Article XXI will = complement the discussion. </= p>II. <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'IHQAMF+Garamond-Bold'; letter-sp= acing:0.05pt"> Articl= e XXI: A Self-Judging Clause According to Stephan Schill and Robyn= Briese, self-judging clauses are =E2=80=9Cprovisions in internationa<span= class=3D"stl07">l legal instrumen= ts by means of which States retain the right to escape or derogate from an = international obligation based on un= ilateral considerations and based on their subjective appreciation of wheth= er the circumstances required for = the invocation of the clause exist=E2=80=9D4. For Schill and Briese, self-judging <= /span>clauses possess two identifiable characteristics: they provide a unilate= ral opt-out from an international </span= >ob= ligation and they give the invoking State the discretion of determining whe= ther the elements for the opt-out ha= ve been fulfilled5. Schill and Briese= follow the rules of interpretation of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), specifically Articl= e 31(1), when asserting that self-judging = 0;clauses should clearly state that a Contracting Party will retain the= discretion to decide the scope and </sp= an>applicability of the provision (for= example, by using the words =E2=80=9Cif the State considers=E2=80=9D)</spa= n>6. </sp= an>= The language of Article XXI favors the conclusion that it is a self-judging= provision. Since it is an <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">exception= , its invocation provides an opt-out of GATT obligations. In addition, it u= ses the word =E2=80=9Cnothing= =E2=80=9D, and the wording of its sub-<= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">paragraphs (a)= and (b) provide for the article=E2=80=99s invocation when a contractin= g party considers it necessary7. The = content of this provision neither signals the existence <= span class=3D"stl07">of an objective standard of review nor explicitly prov= ides jurisdiction to the GATT/WTO for </= span>determining the righteousness of = the measure. In contrast, Article XX=E2=80=99s chapeau, which enshrines an = = objective standard of review, does provide the WTO with jurisdiction to= examine various aspects of <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">an invoc= ation under such exceptions, such as the necessity of the measure<sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">8= . </= p>4SCHILL, Stephan & BRIESE, Roby= n (2009): =E2=80=9CIf the State Considers: Self-Judging Clauses i= n International Dispute Settlement=E2=80=9D, Max Planck Y= earbook of United Nations Law, Vol. 13, p. 92. </= span>5 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 68. 6 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 69-70. <= /p>7 ALFORD, = Roger P. (2001): =E2=80=9CThe Self-Judging WTO Security Exception=E2=80=9D, U= TAH Law Review, No. 3, p. 759. 8 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1= 282. 18 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGg= oAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAAD= sQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUx= HQHA2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808"= alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />The se= lf-judging character of Article XXI remains subject of academic and legal d= ebate. This paper will offer contras= ting positions and arguments regarding the justiciability of the provision = and the question of its self-judging= character. III. Preparatory Works Preparatory works, = as supplementary means of interpretation9, are relevant when dealing with the = 0;ambiguity surrounding the justiciability and self-judging character o= f Article XXI, and the implausibilit= y of resolving the question through the ordinary meaning of the clause. In = general, preparatory works provide u= seful insight in cases of ambiguity or obscurity of legal provisions. </spa= n> Ultimately, the analysis of the preparato= ry works of Article XXI will afford a reasonable interpretation <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> of the = article=E2=80=99s object and purpose as conceived by the GATT=E2=80=99s Con= tracting Parties. = As evidenced = by the first drafts of the GATT, the United States=E2=80=99 State Departmen= t Proposal10 and the London Draft11= , States recognized the need to establish exceptions to the obligations and= general principles that were going = to be agreed upon in the new trade organization. The GATT 1947 eventually <= /span> separated general exceptions (Article XX) from security exceptions (Arti= cle XXI); however it wasn=E2=80=99t originally conceived that way. In t= he New York Draft of Charter12, these= exceptions were all included </p= >under =E2=80=9Cgeneral exceptions=E2=80= =9D, as follows: <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">=E2=80=9CArtic= le 37 = General exception= s to chapter V Subject to the requirement that such measures are= not applied in a manner which </= p>would= constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between co= untries where the same conditions pr= evail, or a disguised restriction on international trade, = nothing in Chapter V shall be construed to prevent th= e adoption or enforcement by = any Mem= ber of measures: (a) Necessary to protect public morals; (b) <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">For the = purpose of protecting human, animal or plant life or health, if <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> corresponding domestic safeguards under similar= conditions exist in the importing </spa= n>c= ountry; (c) Relating to fissionable materials; (d) Relating to the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and= to such traffic in other goods and = materials as is carried on for the purpose of supplying a = military establishment; = 9 </spa= n>VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969)= , Art. 32. 10 UNITED S= TATES OF AMERICA, DEPARTMENT OF STATE: =E2=80=9CProposals for Expansion o</= span>f World Trade and Employment=E2=80=9D (November 1945). <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;11 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: = =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of </= span>the First Session= of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/33 (December 1946). <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 12 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL:= =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > the Draf= ting Committee of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/34 (March 1947= ). 19 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoA= AAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQ= BD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEoO9lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAACYck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgCUOyWgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUV= ORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolu= te" />(e) <= /span>In time of war or other emergency in international relations, relating t= o the protection of the essential se= curity interests of a Member; </p= >(f) Relating to the importation or exportation of = gold or silver; (g) Necessary to secure compliance with laws or regulati= ons which are not inconsistent with = the provisions of Chapter V, such as, those relating to customs <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> enforcement, deceptive practices, and the prote= ction of patents, trade marks and </span= >co= pyrights; (h) <span= class=3D"stl07">Relating to the products of prison labour; (=E2=80=A6)= = ;(k) Undertaken in pursuance of obligations under the United Nations Ch= arter for the maintenance or restora= tion of international peace and security.=E2=80=9D13 </s= pan>If the article had remained as originally presented, any measure otherwise= prohibited and justified under sub-= paragraphs (c), (d), (e), and (k) would also need to comply with the condit= ions imposed by the article=E2=80=99s chap= eau. In other words, measures justified under security exceptions could not= have been applied in a manner that = would constitute arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countrie= s where the same conditions prevail,= or in a manner which constituted a disguised restriction on international trade14. The only difference between the chapeau of Article 37, and the= current text of Article XX of the G= ATT is insignificant. The United Sta= tes delegation proposed an amendment to the New York Draft Charter, which <= /span> suggested the exclusion of items (c),= (d), (e), (j) and (k) from Article 37, stating that this article related <= /span> only to Chapter V, and their inclusion in a new article to be placed =E2= =80=9Ctoward the end of the Charter (=E2=80=A6) [making] these items general exceptions to the entire char= ter=E2=80=9D15. </sp= an> When submitting the proposal for the con= sideration of the commission discussing the general exceptions, the Chairman himself stated that the proposal i= ntended to make those sub-paragraphs </s= pan>apply to the Charter as a whole and not only to Chapter V16</span= >. During the discussion of these security <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> exceptions, the Netherlands delegate asked for= clarification as to what meaning would be given to the <= span class=3D"stl07">phrases emergency in international relations <= span class=3D"stl07">and essential security interests, feeling they could create a large &#= xa0;loophole17. The United States=E2=80=99 (US) delegate attempted t= o address the previous concerns, feeling an obligation to do so as they= had originally drafted the text of those provisions. He argued that the ri= ght or need of a Member to determin= e what their security interests are and to take action accordingly <= span class=3D"stl07"> should be unquestionable. In explaining what= would constitute an emergency in international relations, the US delegate gave as an example the restrictions = to imports and exports by his government during World War II. More significantly, he explained that during the = drafting efforts the US recognized a </s= pan>13 =C3=8Ddem. </sp= an>14 PAUWELYN, Joost H.B. et al. (2016): Internation= al Trade Law (Wolters Kluwer, 3rd ed.), p. 419. <= /span>15 UNITED STAT= ES OF AMERICA, UNITED STATES DELEGATION TO THE UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CProposal submitted to the = Second Session of the Preparatory Committee of <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">the U.N. Conference on Trad= e and Employment=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/W/23 (May 1974), p. 5 (=E2=80=9C<s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'UKTMOM+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">US Proposal=E2=80=9D). 16 </spa= n>UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSecond= Session of the Preparatory Committee of the U.N. Conference on Trade and = Employment, 25th mtg. of Comm=E2=80=99n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/25 (July 1947), p. 3= 9. 17 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCI= AL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSecond Session of the Preparatory Committee of = the U.= N. Conference on Trade and Employment, 33rd mtg. of Comm=E2=80=99= n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/33 (July 1947), p. 19 (=E2=80=9CVerbat= ium of 33rd Meeting=E2=80=9D). 20 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:5"><img src= =3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAAB= HNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjERAgEQALFlBopX= gCzEYoUaB99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntXz+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfYAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>need for= balance. The exceptions could not be too tight as to prohibit measures =E2= =80=9Cneeded purely for securit= y reasons=E2=80=9D nor too broad as to permit the pretext of security to al= low =E2=80=9Canything under the sun=E2=80=9D18. <= span class=3D"stl07">Continuing the discussion of the US proposal, the comm= ission then proceeded to consider the </= span>introductory paragraph for the new article. The introductory text for the= new article disposed: =E2=80=9CNothing in this Charter shall be constr= ued to require any Member=E2=80=A6=E2=80=9D19. The Chairman opened the </span= >fl= oor for discussion on the issue of the possibility of reviewing measures in= voked under these exceptions. Specia= l weight is given to the remarks by the delegation who introduced the amend= ment. The US delegate stated that a = Member who invokes such exceptions would not violate the Charter, <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> but i= f that unilateral action affected another Member =E2=80=9Cthat member would= have the right to seek redress= of some kind under Article 35=E2=80=9D20. Article 35 of the New York Draft referred to dispute settlement within the organization. The Australian= representative suggested the inclusion of either a paragraph or a note that would further clarify that the sec= urity exceptions did not conflict with Article 3521. After receiving assuranc= es by the US delegation that the lack of conflict was =E2=80=9Cperfectly cl= ear=E2=80=9D22, <spa= n class=3D"stl07">the Australian representative withdrew his reservation. S= ubsequently, the proposal was approved. The &#= xa0;content of Article XXI as we know it today was settled in the Genev= a Final Act of October 30, 1947 <= /p>and = it has never been amended23. Needless= to say, the current language of the article is almost identical <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> to the= US=E2=80=99 proposal. After examining the discussions leading up to th= e adoption of this article, it is possible to assert the <= span class=3D"stl07">following conclusions. The decision to relocate the se= curity exceptions from the general provision to a separate article gives us strong indications that the Contrac= ting Parties wished these exceptions to = be granted a special treatment. The parties also recognized their indiv= idual right to determine what </p= >consti= tutes a security interest while at the same time asserting that the article= would be justiciable. IV. Article XXI Di= scussions in the GATT/WTO System Very few cases have been subjec= t to a formal dispute settlement procedure under Article XXI exceptions. Even though GATT/WTO panels have not b= een able to issue binding jurisprudence, it is relevant to reproduce some of the discussions that took place ar= ound those formal complaints. </p= >Additi= onally, further recollection of the opinions of member States at council me= etings regarding the scope of the ar= ticle will provide important insight. </= span>During the Third Session of the GATT, Czechoslovakia requested a decision= under Article XXIII regarding wheth= er the US had failed to meet its GATT obligations by issuing export license= s24. The US=E2=80=99 defense was = based on Article XXI, arguing the export licenses were being issued to prod= ucts they 18 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 20-22. </= span>19 US Proposal (1974). = 20 Verbatium of 33rd Meeting (1947), = p. 26-27. 21 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 27-28. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">22 =C3=8Ddem. = 23 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, SECRETARIAT (2012): =E2=80=9CGATT A= nalytical Index =E2=80=93 Guide to GATT Law and <= /span>Practice=E2=80= =9D (=E2=80=9CAnalytical Index=E2=80=9D). 24 </sp= an>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REQUEST FOR A DECISION UNDER = ART. XXIII BY CZECHOSLOVAKIA: =E2=80=9CUnited States <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D, <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= GATT/CP.3/33 (May 1949). 21 </s= pan><img src=3D"data:image/p= ng;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhki= AAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACcRJREFUeJzt3bGKXGUYxvHnmznGVSsxkCADVumsFUvv= wMobUHMN3oid3oFtihQpvAdBBZvIgmAlkmSTzc5509qsTGTJN+/w+9Vf8ZR/zineBAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAjsSYPaCJW0nuJNnM= HkJ7F0n+mj0CgN6W2QOauJvkfpL3Zg+hvZ+T/DB7BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAHQ1Zg84BVU1knyY5J3ZWwCguTXJn2OMi9lDjtkye8ApOD8/P9vtdt8l+XT2FgD= orKqe7vf7r5L8NHvLMRNwN2C326WqPhhj3J29BQCae7Isy63ZI47dZvYAAABej4ADAGhGwAEANC= PgAACaEXAAAM0IOACAZgQcAEAzAg4AoBkBBwDQjEsMB6iqO0m+SHJ2zZMlSa3r+vubWwXAKamqR= +5/JkleXF5e/jF7xLFzzP4AVfVJkgdJbs/eAsDJ+miMIVw4iF+oAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZ= AQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNOKV1mGdV9UuS92cPAeA0jTEuZ28AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAOBfxuwBp6KqliTL7B0A0FwleTnGWGcPOWaC4wZU1TbJl0k+m70FAJp7keT7J= L/OHnLMBNzN2Cb5PMnXs4cAQGdV9WSM8TAC7j9tZg8AAOD1CDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyA= AwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwgKp6N8m9JG9d82S7rus+yW9vbhVAf2OMl0mez97BUXmW5J/= ZI46dgDvMx0keJLl93YPNxsdMgP/hxyTfjDH+nj0EOlEdAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0I= yAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwmH1VPU1yNnsIwCkZYzxPUrN3QDcC7jCP13X9drvdvj17C= MApubq6erwsy8XsHQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABwA14BILZoqU31= spUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"posi= tion:absolute" />considered could potentially = be used by a military establishment25= . When the issue was discussed with </sp= an>the members, the Czech delegate pro= tested that because the US=E2=80=99 interpretation of =E2=80=9Cwar material= s=E2=80=9D was <sp= an class=3D"stl07">so broad there was no way to know what the term actually= covered26. The British delegate argu= ed that each State =E2=80=9Cmust have the last resort on questions rela= ting to its own security=E2=80=9D and, as such, the Czechoslovakian com= plaint should be dismissed27. The mem= bers voted on the complaint and the </sp= an>= majority found that the US had not failed to carry out its GATT obligations= . I= n 1961= Ghana considered the Portuguese=E2=80=99 presence in Angola as a threat to= African peace, and justified the establishment of a boycott on Portugu= ese goods under Article XXI (b) (iii). Specifically, <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">Ghana=E2=80=99s in= terpretation of the article entailed that each country was to be the =E2=80= =9Csole judge=E2=80=9D of what was necessary for its security interests= , and added that the threat which prompted those measures could <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> be either perceived or apparent28</spa= n>. In this instance, the issue of GATT jurisdiction = over Article XXI claims was not rais= ed29. &#= xa0;Sweden, in 1976, placed a global import quota for certain footwear<= /span>30 justified under Article XXI. At </s= pan> the time, Sweden was facing a decrease = in domestic production and determined that the maintenance of a minimum domestic production capacity <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">in the footwear = industry was =E2=80=9Cindispensable in order to secure the provision of= essential products necessary to meet basic needs in case of war or other <= /span> emergency in international relations=E2=80=9D31. Even though Sweden offered to consult bilaterally with </spa= n> affected members, and despite the quota w= as in place for only two years, this situation exemplifies the <span= class=3D"stl07"> complexi= ties of national security exceptions. As Raj Bhala has accurately stated, = =E2=80=9C[t]here are cases in which commercial and national security in= terests are so intertwined that a bright line between the two interests= can=E2=80=99t be drawn=E2=80=9D32. T= his is just one example of how almost anything can be justified, rightfully= or wrongfully, as essential for nat= ional security. The European Communi= ties (EC), Canada, and Australia applied a total ban on imports from </span= > Argentina after the 1982 Falklands/Malvina= s conflict. They justified the measure under Article XXI <= span class=3D"stl07">and said the exercise of rights under this exception w= as not subject to notification, justification, or approval33 by other mem= bers. Argentina argued that a failure to notify trade restrictions was not = only a violation of fundamental GATT= obligations but also a lack of respect for all Contracting Parties<= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >34. </span= >Th= e Brazilian delegate sided with Argentina and stated that while every membe= r has the right to 25 </span= >GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REPLY BY THE UNITED STATES DELE= GATION: =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D= , GATT/CP.3/38 (June 1949). </= span>26 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRAD= E, THIRD SESSION OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of th= e Twenty-Second Meeting=E2=80=9D, GATT/CP. 3/SR.22 (Jun= e 1949). 27 =C3=8Ddem, p. 7. <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 28 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, NINET= EENTH SESSION OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the T= welfth Session=E2=80=9D, SR.19/12 (December 1961), p. 196. </span= > 29 SCHOLEMANN, Hannes L. & OHLHOFF, Stefa= n (1999): =E2=80=9CConstitutional= ization and Dispute Settlement in the WTO: National Security as an Issue o= f Competence=E2=80=9D, American Journal of International L= aw, Vol. 93, pp. 424, 436. 30 <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">Analytical Index (2012), p. 603. <= /p>31 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, NOTIFICATION BY THE = SWEDISH DELEGATION: =E2=80=9CSweden =E2=80=93 Import R= estrictions on Certain Footwear=E2=80=9D, L/4250 (November 1975),= p. 3. 32 BHALA, Raj (1998): <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:0.1pt">=E2=80=9CNational Security and Internationa= l Trade Law: What the GATT Says, and what the United States = ;Does=E2=80=9D,= University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Econo= mic Law, Vol 19, pp. 263, 273. 33 </sp= an> GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2= =80=9CTrade Restrictions Affecting Argentina Applied for Non-economic </sp= an>Reasons=E2=80=9D, C/M/157 (June 1982), p. 10. = 34 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 11-12. 22 <img src= =3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAAB= HNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwB= JKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/WojukI672q53QCgN2u04ElPtW7uk1HWO+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPzyBUz0BO5NnbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>determine what their essential security interests a= re, justification had to be provided in cases where no <= span class=3D"stl07">involvement of security interests were apparent= 35. Although a panel was not established, th= is discussion led the Contracting Pa= rties to adopt the Decision concerning article XXI of the General Agreemen= t36. The document provides that when a measure is taken under Article XXI= , Contracting Parties must be </p= >notifi= ed, subject only to the exceptions in Article XXI (a). However, it still le= ft significant loopholes. It neither= provided an objective standard by which a panel could evaluate an Article = XXI claim nor defined =E2=80=9Creasons of security=E2=80=9D. It was als= o of a temporary character, until the Contracting Parties decided to ma= ke a formal interpretation of the article. More significantly, it was a mis= sed opportunity for members to provi= de clarification on the issue of justiciability. Instead, they determined t= hat all contracting parties affected= by an Article XXI measure retained their full rights under the GATT. </spa= n> Among those rights remains to bring forth= a complaint to a dispute settlement body and receive a <= span class=3D"stl07">determination on the righteousness of the measure. The= document, therefore, seems to echo the = position taken by the members during the preparatory works regarding Ar= ticle XXI not being in conflict with= Article XXIII. In 1985, the US impo= sed a trade embargo against Nicaragua37, prompting the latter to bring a </sp= an>= complaint before the GATT Council. Nicaragua asked the Council to condemn t= he embargo and request the US to rev= oke the measures on the grounds that these were taken as a coercion tool fo= r political reasons38</span= >. The Nicara= guan representative added that it was =E2=80=9Cabsurd to suggest that Nicar= agua, = a small and underdeveloped country, could pose a threat to the n= ational security of one of the most </sp= an>powerful countries in the world=E2= =80=9D, and further noted that there was currently no armed conflict betwee= n = 0;them39. The US justified the em= bargo based on Article XXI (b) (iii) and sustained that proper <span= class=3D"stl07"> notifica= tion of the measure was provided to the members. The US rejected the GATT= =E2=80=99s jurisdiction to judge political or security issues, reinforc= ing their claim that the organization could not approve or disapprove measures deemed to be necessary for the s= afeguard of national security interests40. In regards to the jurisdiction of the GATT, Australia supported= the US=E2=80=99 challenge and added that the appropriate forum for dis= cussions of security issues was the United Nations Security Council<= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >41. The </= span>EC approached the question differently, by simply stating that Article XX= I of GATT was self-judging. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">However,= they also noted that in exercising this discretion, members should act res= ponsibly, and with discernment and= moderation, in order to avoid arbitrary invocations42<span= class=3D"stl07">. Nineteen out of the forty-three countries who addressed the Panel supported the self-judging= interpretation43. In contrast, Polan= d and 35 =C3=8Ddem, = p. 12. 36 &#x= a0;GENERAL AGRE= EMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE: =E2=80=9CDecision concerning article XXI of the= General Agreement=E2=80=9D, L/5426 (December 1982). </spa= n>37 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Executive Order No. 12513, (05/= 01/1985). 38 GENERAL = AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">-= Trade measures affecting Nicaragua=E2=80=9D, <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">C= /M/188 (June 1985), p. 2. 39 =C3=8Dde= m, p. 3. 40 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 4-5. = 41 =C3=8Ddem, p. 12. </= p>42 =C3=8Ddem, p. 14. 43 ALFO= RD (2001), p. 713. 23 <= /span> </= p><img src=3D"data:image/png;bas= e64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAl= wSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB/1JREFUeJzt2MEJAlEQBcFeFEEv5mAo5h+CYA5eRTACQdjD8K= EqgmZOjykAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIAftumARV= yqW3WYDmF5r+o5HQHA2o7TAYu4VvfqPB3C8h4ZcADs5AP3n6065V7s96ne0xEAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACv5AsAiBhzfolD7AAAAAElFTk= SuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /= >Chile rejected the argument that the GATT was= not competent to know and decide Article XXI = claims44. There were also significant arguments against the se= lf-judging character of the article. The Cuban delegate, siding with Nicaragua, stressed that whenever invoking= Article XXI, parties should be <= /p>requ= ired to justify it with relevant facts in order to prevent abuses of the sy= stem45. Similarly, but providing more specificity, India sustained that a= member invoking Article XXI (b) (iii) should provide <spa= n class=3D"stl07">a nexus between the measure taken and its security intere= st46. Brazil further noted that the i= nvocation of the article =E2=80=9Cshould = only be exercised in light of other international obligations such as those= assumed under the UN charter= =E2=80=9D47. A panel was established to decide on the US trade embargo ag= ainst Nicaragua, but its terms of </span= >re= ference precluded it from examining or judging the validity or motivation f= or the invocation of Article XXI (b)= (iii) by the US48. These narrow terms were the result of a compromise, = given the US=E2=80=99 opposition to the establishment of a panel if thi= s provision was to be evaluated. Nonetheless, the panel <= span class=3D"stl07">still made some observations about the article. They s= uggested that even tough trade embargoes are &= #xa0;contrary to GATT principles of certainty and trade liberalizatio= n, the purpose of the article was not </= span>to make parties forego measures needed to protect their essential securit= y interests49. The most relevant </sp= an> contribution of the report was a stateme= nt stressing that a party invoking a measure under Article XXI <span= class=3D"stl07"> should carefully weigh its security needs agains= t the need to maintain stable trade relations50. Despite the report was = not adopted51, the panel implied the = standard of review under which an Article XXI = measure would be analyze= d. They would consider if the member =E2=80=9Ccarefully=E2=80=9D, perhaps r= easonably, weighted the balance of their alleged national security inte= rest being protected and the trade </spa= n>relationship with the member subject= ed to the measure. The panel=E2=80=99s view of a =E2=80=9Ccareful=E2=80=9D = balance when <span= class=3D"stl07">deciding the measure was the echo of statements of a signi= ficant number of States who considered <= /span>that the invocation of the article should be made with utmost prudence, = especially when invoked by a = develop= ed country. The first and only compl= aint brought to a WTO panel has been United States-The Cuban Liberty and </= span> Democratic Solidarity Act. The EC file= d a request for consultations after the US adopted the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act52</= span>. The US, following their same argument as in pr= evious cases, 44 <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt"> GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUni= ted States - Trade measures affecting = Nicaragua=E2=80=9D</span= >, C/M/188 (June 1985), p. 8. </= p>45 =C3=8Ddem, p. 5. 46 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 11. 47 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 7-8. <= /span> <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">48 </spa= n>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON= TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Tra= de measures affecting Nicaragua - Panel established under Arti= cle XXIII:2=E2=80=9D, C/M/196 (Apr. 1986). 49 </= span> GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, PANEL REPO= RT (1986): =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">Trade <= /p>measures affecting Nica= ragua=E2=80=9D, L/6053, =E2=81=8B5.16. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">50 = =C3=8Ddem. 51 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">The panel ultimately concluded that, as it couldn=E2=80=99t analyze this = provision, they could not find the US neither non- = 0;compliant nor= compliant with its GATT obligations. See =C3=ADdem, =E2=81=8B5.3. <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;52 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, REQ= UEST FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A PANEL BY THE EUROPE= AN COMMUNITIES AND THEIR MEMBER STATES: =E2=80=9CUnited States - = The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act=E2=80=9D, WT/DS3= 8/2 (October 1996). 24 = <= /p><img src=3D"data:image/png;ba= se64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAA= lwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jENAgEQAMElgeJpMEKHfwsoeAeYwAHt5ciMg= i23AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4D9dpgOWeFSv6jYdwnqf6j0dAcBu1+mAJe7VszqmQ1jvzMABAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAP30BKAkD775/hCYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624"= height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />invoked Article XXI to justify its measure53<spa= n class=3D"stl07">. This was the first opportunity for a panel to fully analyze = Article XXI and issue a binding report. The= EC did not make counterarguments to the invocation of <= span class=3D"stl07">the provision54;= perhaps because they had been on the other side of the dispute before and = used the same exception to justify s= everal measures. The parties settled the case. V. Considerations by the International Court of Justice <= /p>It i= s worth mentioning how another dispute settlement body, the International C= ourt of Justice (ICJ), has understoo= d Article XXI in light of similar national security exception clauses in bi= lateral treaties. Nicaragua brought = a complaint to the ICJ alleging, inter alia, = that the trade embargo imposed upon </sp= an>= them by the US was in open violation of the obligations acquired under the = bilateral treaty on Freedom, Commer= ce, and Navigation (FCN). The FCN contained a clause that stated that "the = present Treaty shall not preclude th= e application of measures ... (d) necessary to fulfill the obligations </sp= an> of a Party for the maintenance or restor= ation of international peace and security, or necessary to protect its = essential security interests." The Court compared the FCN=E2=80=99<s= pan class=3D"stl07">s security exceptions with those <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">in the GATT. They = manifested that the GATT=E2=80=99s Article XXI contained the phrase = it </s= pan>[the member] <= /span>considers necessary</span= >, and the FC= N, on the other hand, did not make reference =E2=80=9Cto what the party =E2= =80=98considers <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">necessary=E2=80= =99 for that purpose=E2=80=9D55. In i= ts decision, the ICJ found the trade embargo violated the FCN and <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> that the security exception clause was not se= lf-judging. The Court also implied, au contraire, that Article XXI of the GATT wa= s self-judging. In the Oil Platforms= Case56, the ICJ addressed a controve= rsy dealing preliminarily with a similar = ;exception under a FCN treaty. In this regard, the Court maintained the= opinion that such provisions </p= >were n= ot self-judging and therefore subject of an objective standard of review</s= pan>57. However, in this case the ICJ did not offer any analogy with the GATT se= curity exceptions clause. It is possible to infer from the ICJ=E2=80=99= s statements that security exceptions are justiciable in the cases <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> <= /p>conc= erned (Oil Platforms and Nicaragua). However, while acknowledging the justi= ciability of such exceptions under F= CN treaties, the ICJ clearly distinguished Article XXI of the GATT and infe= rred its self-judging character. </s= pan> VI. Academic Debate 53 </span= >WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT BODY (1996): =E2=80=9C</sp= an>United States - The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act - R= equest by the European Communities and their member States for the establis= hment of a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/24. <= /p>54 ORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT BODY (1997): =E2= =80=9CUnited States - The Cuban Liberty </= p>and Democratic Solidarit= y Act - Request by the European Communities and their member States for the= establishment of a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/26. </= p>55 = MILITARY AND PA= RAMILITARY ACTIVITIES IN AND AGAINST NICARAGUA (Nicar. v. U.S.), = <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >International Court of Justice. Judgment, June 27, 1986, I.C.J. Rep. 14, <= /span>=E2=81=8B</spa= n>282. See also Opinion of Jose E. Alvarez, Sempra </spa= n>Energy Int'l & C= amuzzi Int'l v. Republic of Argentina, ARB/02/16 and ARB/03/02, p. 6 (9/12/= 2005). Available at: http://ita.law.uvic.ca/documents/CamuzziSempraAlvarez= Opinion.pdf. 56 OIL PLATFORMS </= span>(Iran v. U.S.), International Court of Justice. Judgment on the Mer= its, November 6, 2003. 57 ALFORD (2001= ), p. 41. 25 <sp= an class=3D"stl47" style=3D"letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBO= Rw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAA= OxAAADsQBD6fLggAACNVJREFUeJzt3SGOlFEQhdFb3QQxhBASCALFsAcWgUSyDRyrQbIBFJolIM= CwBWbSATOdYgVMGjPvr+Yc/cQnr3hJJQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADAVtTqgCGeJ3mb5GJ1CON9S/JxdQQAsxlwp7lIcplkvzqE8a6T/FgdA= QAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABwq1odcC66+2mSl6s7AGC4Y5LvVX= W1OmTL7q0OOCOvk3xYHQEAk3X3oareJPm8umXLdqsDAAD4NwYcAMAwBhwAwDAGHADAMAYcAMAwB= hwAwDAGHADAMAYcAMAwBhwAwDAuMZygu/dJHuSWwXs8Hu/vdrvD3VUBW1RV3d3H1R0wVVUdktys= 7tg6A+40L5K8T/Lwbw/2+/2z7v59d0nAFnX3r6p6t7oDBrtJ8nV1xNY5Zn+C7n6V5FOSJ6tbgM3= 7WVWPV0cA580fOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGGc0j= rNdXd/SfJodQiweW4iAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8H/4A42VM8T23pY0AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624= " height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />The academic debate around the scope and extent of Article XXI o= f the GATT is diverse. While some </span= >sc= holars advocate for the justiciability of Article XXI, others argue that su= ch provision cannot be subjected to the GATT=E2=80=99s dispute settleme= nt dispositions. Raj Bhala favors the latter interpretation. He <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> = contend= s that Article XXI (b) provides an effective solution to this debate, in th= e context that its own language purposely inserts the word =E2=80=98it= =E2=80=99, and therefore =E2=80=9Cno WTO panel or other adjudicatory body, = = has any right to determine whet= her a measure =E2=80=A6 satisfies its requirements=E2=80=9D58</spa= n>. He shares the defense made by the EC regarding the trade embargo against Argentina, w= hich asserts that the sanctioning </span= >me= mber does not have to notify or justify to, or seek approval or ratificatio= n from any Member when invoking Arti= cle XXI. He sustains that the Decision Concerning Article XXI <span= class=3D"stl07">does not impose on Members &#= xa0;an obligation to notify sin= ce its wording lets them decide whether notification is =E2=80=9Cpossible= =E2=80=9D59. Although Bhala=E2=80= =99s argument is certainly valid, the Decision Concerning Article XXI </sp= an>should be read as imposing an <= span class=3D"stl07">obligation to notify while giving the sanctioning memb= er the discretion to determine which details will not be disclosed. <= /p>Bhal= a also suggests that while nothing prevents a State from bringing a claim a= gainst a member invoking Arti= cle XXI, a WT= O panel is not likely to adjudicate on the merits the claimant=E2=80=99s in= vocation of that article60. He sa= ys it is likely that the WTO will keep interpreting its terms of reference = narrowly, as in the US-Nicaragua rep= ort. Bhala suggests that good faith = of the members is the only way to avoid abusi= ve invocations of article XXI= 61. Nevertheless, he advocates for the delim= itation of Article XXI (b), based on a reasonableness <spa= n class=3D"stl07">standard that would objectively evaluate whether a reason= able government facing the same <= /p>circ= umstances would have invoked the provision. This argument appears to be in = contradiction with his self-judgin= g interpretation of Article XXI. If the article is not justiciable, the que= stion remains open on who should d= elimit subparagraph (b) and who should determine the reasonableness of the = measure. Bhala does not clarify this. For Bhala=E2=80=99s claim of deli= mitation to be valid, it would have to at least require Article XXI (b)= to be justiciable. Roger Alford an= alyzed the preparatory works and also advocates for the self-judging charac= teristic of the exception, concluding that the members=E2=80=99 intenti= on was for Article XXI to be invoked in limited circumstances but for t= hem to reserve the right to determine when they would invoke it<span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">62<= /span>. </p= >Contra= ry to Bhala and Alford, other commentators have elaborated strong arguments= in favor of the justiciability of a= rticle XXI. Particularly, the opinions of Lindsay, Scholemann and Ohlhoff, = and Akande and Williams are notewor= thy. Akande and Williams argue that = allowing Article XXI to be self-judging would be to undermine the <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> legal= effects of the GATT since it will leave compliance with obligations to the= members=E2=80=99 discretion63. </spa= n> Scholemann and Ohlhoff sustain that allow= ing members to block the jurisdiction of the dispute <span= class=3D"stl07">settlement bodies just by invoking this article would be t= o transform a substantive issue into a <= /span>58 BHALA (1998), pp. 268-69. = 59 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 270-271. 60 </span= >=C3=8Ddem, p 279. 61 =C3=8Ddem, p= 313. 62 ALFORD (2001), p. 699. = 63 AKANDE, Dapo & WILLIAMS, Sope <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >(2003): =E2=80=9CInternational Adjudication on National Security= Issues: What Role for the WTO=E2=80=9D, Virginia Journa= l of International Law, Vol. 43, pp. 365, 384. </= span>26 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMo= CAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJz= t1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQHA2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/= pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92= pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />procedural one, and would contradict the WTO=E2=80=99s purpose = of strengthening the multilateral system64. They further argue that beca= use the DSU applies to all covered agreements, including the GATT, and </sp= an> there is no explicit reference excluding= Article XXI, it is clear that a panel has jurisdiction to decide <s= pan class=3D"stl07"> these claims65. This argument is very compelling because, once again, members had = the opportunity to exclude <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">the invocations= of security exceptions from the DSU. Furthermore, they label as =E2=80=9Cc= learly justiciable=E2=80=9D tho= se situations where there is no risk to a security interest or whenever a m= easure has no <spa= n class=3D"stl07">effect protecting said interest66. Nonetheless, this assertion remains dubious at best. The de= termination of essential security in= terests is subjective to each country and their sociopolitical circumstance= s; it is not possible for those limits to be =E2=80=9Cclear=E2=80=9D. <= /span> <= /span>Scholemann and Ohlhoff tend to favor the position that while panels shou= ld have an interpretative role, they= would not have definitional authority67. Clarifying this interpretation, Lindsay pointed out <= span class=3D"stl07">that it is up to members to decide what <span= class=3D"stl07">measure to apply, while leaving to a WTO panel the jurisdi= ction to objectively review <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'">when </= span>the measure would be applied68= . It should be noted that a member, when <span= class=3D"stl07"> making a decision to protect its security intere= sts, does not only analyze the measure to be taken but <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">also the corre= ct timing and duration of it. Separating the substance of the measure from = the member=E2=80=99s determination of when to apply it would likely ren= der an incomplete and flawed analysis. <= /span>Lindsay suggests that the US =E2=80=93 Czechoslov= akia and EC =E2=80=93 Yugoslavia disputes are clear = indications that Article XXI is subj= ect to Article XXIII69. The Czechoslo= vakia case was significant since the GATT = 0;Council did not deny jurisdiction to make a determination on the issu= e. The EC, in the dispute with </= p>Yugoslavia, never objected the establish= ment of a panel, indicating that they would accept the panel=E2=80=99s </sp= an> </sp= an>= jurisdiction to decide on the matter. The latter, in addition to Con= tracting Part= ies=E2=80=99 statements during the preparatory works and the <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'">Decision = Concerning Article XXI, have driven Lindsay to= suggest that it is unlikely a pane= l would reject jurisdiction70. Furthe= rmore, he warns about the large loophole that would be created in the system if the WTO were to reject its juri= sdiction on Article XXI. VII. Standard of Review </= p>The p= anel in its non-binding report in US =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting = Nicaragua, discussed above, hinted <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> which standard of review would be applicable in= the event of having the terms of reference to do so. <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">The panel would a= nalyze if the member =E2=80=9Ccarefully=E2=80=9D weighted the balance of th= e security interest and the trade relation with the member subject of t= he measure. Nevertheless, it would be na=C3=AFve not to <= span class=3D"stl07">stress that typically nations value their security int= erests much higher than its trade relations. &= #xa0;Consequently, while a member may give careful thought to its tra= de relations before imposing a </= p>measu= re based on Article XXI, the balance will generally tilt towards safeguardi= ng its alleged national security. </= span> 64 SCHOLEMANN & OH= LHOFF (1999), pp. 439-440. </spa= n>65 =C3=8Ddem, p. 441. 66 <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >=C3=8Ddem, p. 443. 67 =C3=8Ddem, p. 44= 8. 68 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1287. <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 69 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 1293-1294. </= span>70 =C3=8Ddem. 27 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACQ1JREFUeJzt3T1uFEEUhdH7WiMjILH4yUiQ= WANbYBeInMUQswx2QMIiyAgNJCDZGAfTRUBA6MEgqt9wjlRZBzfrT62WKgEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAIMnTJJ+TDMf5w/MmAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD/qZo94JiMMU6TnM7eAQCNrUk+VdX32= UO2bDd7wJF5keTl7BEA0NhFfr5L380esmUC7i9a1/X+sixPZu8AgK7GGOdVdWf2jq1bZg8AAOD3= CDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuInhAGOMh0meJbl1zaOP1nV= 9/w8mAcCxutzv95ezR2ydgDvM4ySvkjy47sFl8VETAG5qjHG+2+1uz96xdWoDAKAZAQcA0IyAAw= BoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZNzEcZj/GOBtjXM0eAp1U1VWSdfYOoJWLJ= N9mj9g6AXeYparu5YCrtIBfqup5krezdwCtjCRfZo/YOgF3mEpyUlUns4dAM1+r6uPsEQDHxj9w= AADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuInhMGfrur5Ocnf2EOh= kWZYPszcAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA3MQPvAvLEyBY6Z8AAAAASUV= ORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolu= te" />Cann71, joined by Akande and Williams72, hold that the determination of the necessity of a measure for security reasons is subjective and as such sh= ould be determined by the members themselves and not be reviewable by third parties. They also concur that a pa= nel should have the jurisdiction to </sp= an>= reviewing the measure under a good faith standard. Akande and Williams add = that in order to properly analyze the member=E2=80=99s good faith, a pa= nel would have to review the purpose of the me= asure73. Both positions seem contradictory. In order to determine good fa= ith under their proposed standard, and to = 0;review the purpose of the measure, a panel must do some analysis of t= he necessity of the measure. = Further= more, Cann argues that applying this good faith standard should be enough to =E2= =80=9Cprohibit <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">74= <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'">discriminatory = actions=E2=80=9D . But, if the Contracting Part= ies had intended for security exception = invocations to be non-discriminatory they would have left them under Ar= ticle XX and subjected to the chapea= u test. Akande and Williams suggest that in order to comply with the good f= aith standard, the invoking member =E2=80=9Cmust genuinely believe that= the measure taken is necessary to protect its national security interests=E2=80=9D. They argue a panel sh= ould examine whether the member considered an = essential security interest threaten= ed and whether the measure was a proportional response to the threat75. H= owever, this interpretation would give panels too much authority to determi= ne what is not an =E2=80=9Cessential security interest=E2=80=9D, what i= s not a =E2=80=9Cthreat=E2=80=9D, and what is not =E2=80=9Cproportionate re= sponse=E2=80=9D; these determin= ations should always be left to the States=E2=80=99 since an objective eval= uation of these elements is highly unlikely. Scholemann and Ohlhoff, who also propose a good faith standard= of review, contend that it should </spa= n>b= e applied by analyzing the reasonableness of the measure76= . Akande and Williams reject the <= span class=3D"stl07">reasonableness standard on the basis that the drafters= could have included this requirement but = 0;refrained from doing so. Using the same argument, we could rebuttal t= heir good faith standard proposition= on the grounds that drafters could also have included a good faith require= ment. The scholars that support the = good faith standard do recognize the challenges in applying it. Difficulty = of proving a government acted in bad= faith77 and who bears the burden</sp= an>78 are but a few of them. VIII. = State Practice The WTO = Agreement states that the organization =E2=80=9Cshall be guided by the deci= sions, procedures and customary= practices=E2=80=9D79 of its members.= With this clause, the WTO acknowledged the prospective <= span class=3D"stl07">effects of State practice vis-a-vis the treaty. The VCLT provides for general and supplementary rul= es 71 CANN, Wesley A. Jr. (2001): =E2=80=9CCreating Stan= dards and Accountability for the Use of the WTO Security Exception: = Reduci= ng the Role of Power-Based Relations and Establishing a New Balan= ce between Sovereignty and Multilateralism=E2=80=9D, </span= >Yale Journal o= f International Law, Vol. 26, pp. 413, 480. </spa= n>72 AKANDE & WILLIAM (2003), pp. 398-399. = ;73 =C3=8Ddem, p. 396. 74 </s= pan>CANN (2001), p. 452. 75 AKANDE &= amp; WILLIAMS (2003), p. 399. 76 SCHOLE= MANN & OHLHOFF (1999), pp. 443-445. 77 </spa= n>=C3=8Ddem; AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 393. </spa= n>78 AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 394. </= span>79 MARRAKESH AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING THE = WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, Morocco (4/15/1994), Article 16. = ;28 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAA= AAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACIFJREF= UeJzt3TFqFkAURtE7ksoi2KQSsgErNxA7s5W0rsTGvaRJkcZdWIRgZ6MQAoIyKdyAPyRMJpzTP/= jK270CAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIBnaawesIl31ZfqzeohbO+6+rR6= BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAM/PWD0A4CWbc76uzqvT1VtY6nd1Ncb4dujhnPN9dVZ9ry7HGPe= PPY79HK0eAPDCHVcX1cfVQ1hnzvlzjPGjOjjgqg/V5+q6+loJOHq1egAAAIcRcAAAmxFwAACbEX= AAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAm/HMHuAJzTmP+vfI/nj1Fpb6W= 92OMX4dejjnPKneVnfVzRjjz2OPAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgP/3ABfrI9qkU1wNAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>for treaty interpretation80. The general rule remains that a treaty should be interprete= d in light of the principle of good = faith, its ordinary meaning with due regard for the context, and its object= and purpose. Nevertheless, the VCLT= signals that together with the context, it should be taken into <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> account, inter alia, =E2=80=9Cany subsequent practi= ce in the application of the treaty which esta= blishes the agreement of the parties=E2=80=9D81. The VCLT, showing its own age, prompted the International L= aw Commission (ILC) to expand or c= larify the scope and content of several of its provision. In 2014, the </sp= an> ILC developed a series of guidelines for= the effects of subsequent practice of States in relation to treaties82. In its report, special rapporteur G= eorg Nolte referred to the WTO Appellate Body=E2=80=99s report <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">on </spa= n>Japa= n =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II, which of= fered a definition of subsequent practice in treaty interpretation as t= he sequence of acts or pronouncements that are =E2=80=9Cconcordant, common, and </span= >consistent=E2=80=9D83= . While acknowledging the position of the Appellate B= ody, he asserted that such standard </sp= an>establishes a high threshold under = Article 31 (3) (b) =E2=80=9Crequir[ing] a particularly broad-based, settled, </= p>and q= ualified form of collective practice in order to establish agreement betwee= n the parties regarding interpretation=E2=80=9D84. He further notes that the Appellate Body seems to have ta= ken that standard from Sir Ian Sincl= air85, who considered the value of su= bsequent practice dependent on =E2=80=9Cthe extent to which it is concordant, common and consistent=E2=80=9D. = Subsequently, in EC =E2=80=94 Computer Equipment, the Appellate Body loosened t= he criteria established in Japan =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II= . It held tha= t =E2=80=9C[t]he purpose of treaty interpretation is to establish the <= /span>= common [emphasis in original] intention of the= parties to the treaty. To establish= this intention, the prior practice of only one </= span>[emphasis in original] of the parties <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> may be relevant, but it is clearly of more lim= ited value than the practice of all parties=E2=80=9D86. The Appellate <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Body impl= ied that in order for subsequent practice to be a legitimate mean of interp= retation it does not need to be prac= ticed by all members. Rather, the interpretative value increases in the mea= sure more members engage in such pra= ctice. Therefore, the lack of a formal interpretation of the article, </spa= n> together with these provisions and statem= ents, leads to the conclusion that pronouncements and <spa= n class=3D"stl07">actions by a majority of states is the most legitimate an= d reliable mechanism to interpret the scope and applicability of Article XXI. = 0;During the preparatory works discussions, the Contracting Parties see= med to have accorded a special </= p>treat= ment to Article XXI but nonetheless made it subject to judicial review unde= r the proper dispute settlement mech= anisms. Due regard should be given to the statement by the US delegate, who= shared that the security exceptions= were not outside the scope of the dispute settlement provisions. However, = there has been an apparent shift fro= m that position. The parties=E2=80=99 statements and practice since the <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'"> </= p>GATT = entered into force seem to indicate that a significant number of States fav= or the position that 80 </span= >VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969) = Art. 31-32. 81 =C3=8Ddem, Article 31 </= span>=E2=81=8B</span= >3(b). 82 UNITED N= ATIONS, INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION: =E2=80=9CSecond Report on s= ubsequent agreements and subsequent practice in relation to the interpreta= tion of treaties of Its Sixty-Sixth Session=E2=80=9D, A/CN.4/671 = (3/ 26/2014) (ILC Report). </spa= n> 83 </= span>WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1996): =E2=80=9CJa= pan =E2=80=94 Alcoholic Beverages II=E2=80=9D, <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'; font-size:= 10pt"> WT/= DS8/AB/R, WT/DS10/AB/R, WT/DS11/AB/R. 84 </span= >ILC Report, =E2=81=8B21. <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">85 = SINCLAIR, Ian (1984): The Vienna Convention on t= he Law of Treaties (Manchester University Press), p. 137. = 86 </spa= n> WORLD= TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1998): =E2=80=9CEC =E2=80=94 Co= mputer Equipment=E2=80=9D, WT/DS62/AB/R, WT/DS67/AB/R, WT/DS68/AB/R, </spa= n>=E2=81=8B<s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt">93. <= /p>29 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAA= BPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENg= DAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jrYIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB84pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7q= nEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD81wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width= =3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><span= class=3D"stl07">the invocation of national security exception is enough to= preclude a panel from knowing and judging &#x= a0;the righteousness of such measure. = 0;Close attention must also be paid to the frequency with which members= have invoked Article XXI and brough= t complaints under it. The few Article XXI cases brought to the GATT/WTO du= ring its more than 60-year history e= vidences a lot of restraint from members in invoking security exceptions. <= /span> This restraint, however, together wit= h weak dispute settlement provisions that were in place before <span= class=3D"stl07"> the adoption of the DSU, must be the principal r= eason panels and appellate bodies have not had the opportunity to determine the justiciability and scope of the= article, much less its standard of review. &#= xa0;One reason for such restraint may be that States acknowledge that t= he ambiguity surrounding the = justici= ability of the article actually favors them. Scholars as Lindsay favor this =E2= =80=98constructive=E2=80=99 ambiguity, arguing that allowing members = to address the security exception through less formal methods permits </spa= n> greater flexibility in timing and respons= e, protects real and perceived concerns over national <spa= n class=3D"stl07">sovereignty, and provides the necessary checks against ab= use of these exceptions87. <sp= an class=3D"stl07"> In the discussions regarding United States </= span>= =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting Nicaragua = a majority of States seemed <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">to have = agreed that an Article XXI invocation should be made in good faith and exer= cised with prudence; but leaving tho= se determinations to each member. As Alford has correctly pointed out, </sp= an> regardless a panel may interpret it othe= rwise, Article XXI has been self-judging88. IX. </= span>&#x= a0;Mitigating Abuses </spa= n> = The main argument of States who oppose the self-judging interpretation = is that this determination will <= /p>lead= to abuses and its invocation could serve as a hard bargaining technique us= ed by powerful members against weak = ones. These are valid concerns; nonetheless, States themselves can prevent = abuses by holding each other account= able in a number of ways. Alford has= suggested four mechanisms contemplated by the WTO which would help mitigat= ing abuse of the clause. Under Artic= le XXXV of the GATT, and upon the accession of a new member, a <span= class=3D"stl07"> Contracting Party may declare their trading rela= tions will not be subject to GATT/WTO obligations89. Since a super-majori= ty is needed to accede the organization, according to Alford the purpose of= the article was to allow members wh= o voted against the admission not to be obliged towards the new <spa= n class=3D"stl07"> member. This opt-out, or non-application, provi= sion has seldom been invoked. </p= >Just a= s the system lets members opt-out of obligations, Article XXIV permits part= ies to enter into preferential trade= agreements (PTA) to further liberalize trade between its members. Alford s= uggests that members of a PTA can in= corporate an objective security exception. This way, the invocation of </sp= an> such security exception will be justicia= ble in relation to the PTA members, while the self-judging standard will remain for non-PTA members<span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">90<= /span>. </p= >87 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1312. 88 </spa= n>ALFORD (2001), p. 708. 89 =C3=8Dde= m, p. 726. 90 =C3=8Ddem, p. 733. </spa= n> 30 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUh= EUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLgg= AAB+hJREFUeJztzkENAgEQALGBkPsgABTiClenAgN8kbFZ0ipoAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwVy7TgSWO6lFd= pyOs960+0wkAdrtNB5Z4Vq/qPh1hvbN6TycAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAF= b4ARMGBADJpJB4AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />Another mechanism a m= ember can implement is altering the discretionary tariff benefits given to = other members. However, these discre= tionary tariff benefits can only be applied by developed countries <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'CVINTK+Garamond-Italic'">vis- </= span>&= #xa0;a-vis <spa= n class=3D"stl07">developing countries91. Nonetheless, this alternative could prevent the over invocation of Art= icle XXI, since a developed country = could meet its objectives by removing or suspending a tariff benefit </span= > without the need of invoking a security ex= ception. The WTO also contemplates c= ases where a measure adopted is not contrary to the covered agreements </sp= an> but nonetheless nullifies or impairs ben= efits. In fact, when discussing the inclusion of this non- violation remedy92, the working party used the example of an invocation under the secur= ity exceptions which would be permissible by the Charter but could none= theless impair or nullify other members=E2=80=99 benefits93</s= pan>. In those cases, the working party continued, a = member could bring a claim not on the </= span>grounds that the measure violates the Charter, but on the basis of an imp= airment or nullification of <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">benefits= . Therefore, while a Panel could not review an Article XXI measure, it woul= d retain the jurisdiction determine = whether there is an impairment or nullification of benefits. The invoking <= /span> member does not have to remove the me= asure, but the affected party is entitled to damages94<span= class=3D"stl07">. Alford correctly argues that this is an exceptional = remedy which =E2=80=9Cshould be approached with caution=E2=80=9D<spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">95= and </span= >th= erefore should be invoked only for controversial national security invocati= ons96. &= #xa0;Member States also have the ability to solve the issues that pro= mpt the adoption of Article XXI <= /p>meas= ures by recurring to alternate mechanisms other than those contemplated in = the GATT/WTO. For example, the US re= ached an agreement with the EC outside the GATT/WTO system, which led </spa= n> the latter to withdraw its WTO complaint.= Parties who are members of the same= regional organization could attempt to discuss the issue and work out a solution with the help of other member= s; or, they can use it as a platform to rally support <spa= n class=3D"stl07">for their position. Moreover, members must certainly look= to the United Nations to seek redress for &#x= a0;measures adopted for national security reasons. Article 33 of the Un= ited Nations Charter mandates </p= >partie= s to any dispute which is likely to endanger the maintenance of internation= al peace and security to seek soluti= ons through the appropriate means of pacific settlement of disputes. The Se= curity Council, when it deems it nec= essary, can call upon the parties to solve their dispute through such </spa= n> means97. It can be argued that State= =E2=80=99s real or perceived threat to its national security is likely to e= ndanger or constitute a threat to international peace and security. Con= sequently, if a State believes its national &#= xa0;security is compromised because of the actions another State, it co= uld recur to the United Nations <= /p>syst= em to seek relief instead of imposing a GATT/WTO measure under Article XXI<= /span>98. In fact, during <= span class=3D"stl07">the preparatory works of the GATT the Contracting Part= ies addressed which organization, if any, was = 91 =C3=8Ddem, p. 741. </p= >92 =C3=8Ddem, p. 747. 93 <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt"> UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND= EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9CReport of Working Party of Sub- <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;Committe= e G of Committee VI on Chapter VIII=E2=80=9D, E/CONF.2/C.6/W.30 (= 1/9/1948). 94 MARRAKESH AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATIO= N, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing = the Settlement of Disputes Article 26 =E2=81=8B 1(b), Annex 2, = (1994) (DSU). 95 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (2001): =E2= =80=9CEuropean Communities-Measures </span= > Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Prod= ucts=E2=80=9D, WT/DSl35/AB/R, <span= class=3D"stl96" style=3D"letter-spacing:-0.05pt">=E2=81=8B186. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">96 ALFORD (2001), p. 748. = 0;97 UNITED NATIONS CHARTER, San Francisco (6/26/1945) = Article 33, =E2=81=8B 2. 98 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt"> With due regard to the imbalance that exists between coun= tries with veto power in the Security Council and those </= span>without it. </spa= n> 31 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUh= EUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLgg= AAB+tJREFUeJzt1rENwlAUwEBHKGU6FmBERmGzLJI6LSvQPX1xN4FLFwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMCEbTpgEa/qXR3TISzvrD7TEQCszcD9Zq+e= 1WM6hOXd1TUdAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAwH/7AvqBBAONN6eIAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" s= tyle=3D"position:absolute" />to determine the = impact of political measures in the international trade system. They agreed= it should to be the United Nations = and not the trade organization. Particularly, the representatives of the Un= ited Kingdom and Greece stated that = the trade organization was to be created to deal with economic <span= class=3D"stl07"> measures= and not political matters, and as such the latter should be under the Unit= ed Nations=E2=80=99 competence.= The Greek delegate went further by arguing that =E2=80=9Can economic measu= re taken for <span= class=3D"stl07">political reasons was not properly speaking an economic me= asure but a political measure and as such = 0;was not of the competence of = the [trade] Organization=E2=80=9D99. The US delegate=E2=80=99s statement= followed the <spa= n class=3D"stl07">same argument as the British and Greek representatives, b= ut emphasized that a political dispute was &#x= a0;to be dealt by the United Na= tions when the issue was within its jurisdiction, and that the Conference= =E2=80=99s function was not to take any stand on whether or not it supp= orted unilateral economic sanctions100. The Committee recommended draft= ing a specific article that would clarify the relationship and <span= class=3D"stl07"> jurisdiction of the new trade organization and t= he United Nations101, but it never ma= de it to the final General Agreeme= nt. X. </span= >Conclusion This paper h= as attempted to gather the various, and contradictory, interpretations give= n by several sources regarding Article XXI=E2=80=99s justiciability. An= y member can request the establishment of a panel to analyze the validi= ty of an Article XXI exception, as they have this right under Article VI of= the DSU, but we consider the panel = should reach the conclusion that the invoking member has the right to </spa= n> determine the appropriateness of the meas= ure. A WTO panel should not have the jurisdiction to define what does not constitute a national security intere= st, an essential security interest, or an emergency in <= span class=3D"stl07">international relations. Members must be the ones who = determine what issues concern their national &= #xa0;security and the measures to be taken in order to safeguard them= . Although some arguments in favor of Article XXI=E2=80=99s justic</spa= n>iability are persuasive, particularly the fact </sp= an> that members had several opportunities t= o clarify or modify the article to make it expressly self- judging, Article XXI should not be reviewable. If, a= s proposed by some scholars, a panel should have the jurisdiction only to determine the necessity or the timing= of the measure, such analysis could not = ;be made without making an assessment of its content and purpose. </spa= n> The most compelling argument in favor of = its self-judging characteristic is the interpretation States have given to it. While concerns for abuse of the = clause are valid, bringing a complaint to a &#= xa0;GATT/WTO panel is not the o= nly mechanism an affected member can use to seek relief. The article=E2=80= =99s &= #xa0;ambiguity is not necessarily bad for the system, and the m</span= >embers=E2=80= =99 restraint in invoking it demonstrates an underlying commitment not = to abuse the invocation of security exceptions and an implied recognition of alternative means to safeguard its= security interests. The time may come sooner rather <span= class=3D"stl07">than later for a panel to finally issue a binding decision= on the justiciability and scope of Article XXI. 99 = UNITED NATIONS CONFERENC= E ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Thirty<spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">-= <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'DTLNIC+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Seventh Meeting=E2=80=9D, E/CONF,2/C.6/SR.37 (3/11/1948). </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'KLLBID+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">100 =C3=8Ddem. = 101 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLO= YMENT: =E2=80=9CReport of the Sixth Committee: <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Organization=E2=80=9D, E/CO= NF.2/68 (1948), Article 83 =E2=81=8Ba. 32 </div></di= v></body></html> --=boundary.Aspose.Words=-- Content-Disposition: inline; filename="times.ttf" Content-Type: application/octet-stream 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